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THE NEW HEALTH SERIES 

OF 

SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGIES 





Class 
Book 






Copyright}! . 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



THE NEW HEALTH SERIES OF SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGIES 



A HEALTHY BODY 



A TEXT-BOOK ON 
PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE 

FOR USE IN 

INTERMEDIATE GRAMMAR GRADES 



BY 



CHARLES H. STOWELL, M.D. 




SILYER, BITRDETT AND COMPANY 



NEW YORK 



BOSTON CHICAGO 



LIBRARY of CONGRESS 
Two CoBies Received 

MAR 7 1906 

y. Copyright Entry t 
CLASS <jU Xkc, No. 

} if 6 ityil 

'COPY b. / 



THE NEW HEALTH SERIES OF 
SCHOOL PHYSIOLOGIES 

A PRIMER OF HEALTH. 

For Primary and Lower Grammar 
Grades. 

A HEALTHY BODY. 

For Intermediate Grammar Grades. 

THE ESSENTIALS OF HEALTH. 

For Higher Grades. 



Copyright, 1906, by 
SILVER, BURDETT AND COMPANY 



PREFACE 

The recognition so widely and generously ac- 
corded to the original edition of " A Healthy 
Body " has prompted the preparation of this new 
text, in which all those distinctive features that 
contributed to the strength and the popularity of 
the book have been retained. 

In offering this new volume the author desires to 
make no claim to originality of investigation in 
anatomy and physiology, the simple facts of which 
have long been fully known. It is in the domain 
of practical hygiene that our knowledge has in- 
creased with such strides during the last few years 
as to require practically a new statement of those 
hygienic laws that may be comprehended and fol- 
lowed by the pupil who is old enough to begin to 
reason and to discriminate. We have also come to 
a new conception of man's relation to his body, as 
a living machine wonderfully adapted to the expres- 
sion of his individuality and his greatest aid in 
personal development. The old idea that man's 
body is his enemy and tempter has passed away, and 
the better and worthier conception of the true re- 
lation between the self and the body has but served 



iv PREFACE 

to dignify and emphasize the importance of the care 
of the body. 

In treating the effects that alcohol and narcotics 
have on the body, such facts as are adapted to the 
comprehension of younger pupils have here been 
developed in conformity with the latest scientific 
experiments and discoveries. The plain truths that 
science teaches on these points have been stated 
without bias and without the exaggeration of over- 
emphasis. Other important phases of hygienic 
teaching have also been given their rightful place 
in the text. 

It is hoped that the illustrative plan of the 
book will*also commend it. It will be found to 
be remarkably free from anatomical pictures and 
diagrams of the organs of the body, which, to the 
child, who comes to this study without previous 
preparation, are often revolting. As the emphasis 
throughout the entire book is on the subject of 
hygiene, much of the usual anatomical illustration 
is confusing and unnecessary. Wherever it is re- 
quired to explain the simple physiological facts 
taught, it is furnished in unexceptionable form. In 
all, the book contains 52 figures and 24 cuts. 

All the requirements of the laws respecting the 
teaching of the subject of physiology and hygiene 
in the public schools, as prescribed in the several 
states, are fully covered here. 

Such a text can scarcely do more than suggest to 



PKEFACE V 

the pupil those wonders and mysteries of the body 
that are so little understood and appreciated and 
so generally ignored. The author's purpose will 
be accomplished if, through this book, the pupil 
shall come to recognize the beauty, the delicacy, 
and the marvelous adaptation of his physical ma- 
chine, to have a proper appreciation of the care 
with which it should be used, and to feel that 
the body is best adjusted when it is controlled by 
intelligence. 

Lowell, Mass., 
February, 1906. 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Page 

I. Introduction 1 

II. The Bones 6 

III. The Skeleton and the Joints 10 

IV. The Care of the Bones 15 

V. Alcoholic Drinks , . 21 

VI. The Muscles ■ 32 

VII. Exercise 37 

VIII. Our Foods 44 

IX. Cooking . . . . 56 

X. Digestion 62 

XI. Digestion in the Stomach .......... 68 

XII. Digestion in the Intestine . 72 

XIII. Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, and the Digestive Organs 76 

XIV. Absorption 81 

XV. The Blood ..„....*........ 85 

XVI. Circulation . . . , 90 

XVII. The Effects of Alcohol and Tobacco on the Heart 

and on the Circulation . . . . 100 

XVIII. Respiration ............ . . . 104 

XIX. Ventilation 112 



viii CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

XX. Sleep . . 116 

XXI. The Kidneys 118 

XXII. The Skin 120 

XXIII. Temperature of the Body 128 

XXIV. The Nervous System 135 

XXV. Alcohol, Tobacco, Opium, and the Nervous System 144 

XXVI. The Sense of Sight 153 

XXVII. The Sense of Taste 159 

XXVIII. The Senses of Smell and Touch ....... 162 

XXIX. The Sense of Hearing 165 

XXX. The Effects of Opium 168 

XXXI. Tea, Coffee, Tobacco ........... 170 

XXXII. Long Life 175 

XXXIII. The Cigarette and the Coming Business Man . . 177 

XXXIV. Before the Doctor Comes ... ..... 180 

INDEX 191 



A Healthy Body 



CHAPTER I 



INTRODUCTION 




You have perhaps looked through a magnify- 
ing glass and have seen how it makes objects 
appear much larger. By placing several such 
glasses in a tube, we can make what is known as a 
" microscope," and with it we can see objects which 
we cannot see with the unaided eye. By the use of 
the microscope we find that 
every fruit and flower, every 
blade of grass, is made up 
of very small parts called 
" cells." ' A Magnifying Glass 




A HEALTHY BODY 



Cells in the Vegetable Kingdom. — To further illus- 
trate this, let us examine the inside of a potato. 
With the unaided eye it looks as if it consisted of 
one common substance. But the microscope shows 
that it, too, consists of cells ; and in these cells are 
vast numbers of little grains containing starch, and 
hence called starch grains. 

To obtain this starch, cut the 
potato into thin slices and place 
these in a small clish full of water. 
By stirring them you can make the 
water look milky. Now remove 
the pieces of potato, and let the 
water become quiet. A white 
powder will settle to the bottom 
of the dish. This is composed of 
starch grains, which under the 
microscope appear as small oval bodies. 

We take wheat to the miller in order that he 
may remove some of the outside layers from each 
little grain, because these layers are not easily 
digested ; and the rest is returned to ns as wheat 
flour. The oatmeal, which we use as a food, is 
largely composed of grains of starch, and these look 
very different from the starch grains of wheat or 
of the potato (Fig. 1). Every part of the vegetable 
kingdom is composed of cells. 

Cells in the Animal Kingdom. — The same thing is 
true of the animal kingdom. When we look at a 




Using a Microscope 



INTRODUCTION 



drop of blood we little think that the microscope 
will show in it vast numbers of very small cells; 
and yet there are as many as five million in every 
minute drop. When we look at the skin we see it 
as one layer of covering ; but the microscope shows 
that it is made up of several layers of cells which 
differ from one another. 

By means of the microscope we learn that every 
part of the body is composed of minute cells. These 




3 
Fig. 1. — Starch grains: (1) from the potato; (2) from wheat ; (3) from oats. 

cells are not all alike. As shown in Fig. 2, some are 
round, others long and narrow, while still others are 
very irregular in shape. Some are so small that 
it would take many thousands of them side by 
side to cover an inch in length ; while others are so 
large that they can almost be seen with the unaided 
eye. Some are colorless, others are light in color, 
and still others are jet black. 

These cells, like the minute parts of some won- 
derful piece of machinery, are constantly wearing 
out. Some of them are kept in repair for a long 
time by a supply of the proper food. Others be- 
come completely worn out, are broken to pieces, and 



A HEALTHY BODY 



finally removed from the body. In the course of 
time all cells wear out, and if the body is healthy, 
are replaced. 

Each cell has some particular work to do, and, 




Fig. 2. — Cells from different parts of the body: (1) from the inside of 
the cheeks; (2) from the liver; (3) from the nail of a finger; (4) from 
the bronchial tubes; (5) from the intestines ; (6) from beneath the 
skin ; (7) from muscle ; (8) from the eye ; (9) from the stomach. 



when it fails to do this work as it should, the health 
suffers to that extent. Should a number of these 
cells in any one part fail in their duty, that part 
becomes diseased and may actually die, though the 
rest of the body remains alive. 



INTRODUCTION 



Composition of the Body. — Water forms a large 
part of the weight of the body. There is also a 
certain amount of fat in the body. We all know 
that some persons are much more fleshy than others, 
but even after long-continued illness there is always 
some fat still remaining in the system. Albuminous 
substances, of which, the most familiar form is the 
white of an egg, make up a large part of the solid 
tissues ; and are also found in the blood and in some 
of the other fluids of the body. There is also some 
mineral matter in the body, principally lime, soda, 
and potash ; there is also some iron, and there are 
traces of other minerals. 



CHAPTER II 



THE BONES 




II 



General Description. — There are over two hundred 
bones in the body. Some of them are long, large, 
and round, while others are thin and flat ; still others 
are so irregular in shape that it is very difficult 
to describe them. The largest bone 
in the body is the thigh bone, or femur. 
See Fig. 3. 

Uses of the Bones. — The principal 
uses of the bones are to act as a sup- 
port for the softer parts of the body, 
to give proper shape to the body, and 
to protect delicate organs that would 
otherwise be too easily injured. The 
eye is well protected in this way. It 
has walls of bone all about it, ex- 
cept in front, where it is necessary 
for the light to enter. The brain 
is surrounded by a bony wall, and 
the heart and lungs are well pro- 
tected by the bony walls of the chest. 
Fig 3.— The thigh N ear ly a ll the bones of the body 
bone, or femur, also have muscles attached to them. 



I i 




THE BONES 



Are the Bones Solid ? — This is easily answered by 
examining one of the large bones of any animal 
after the bone has been sawed open. If it be sawed 
lengthwise, we shall find that it is hollow except at 
the ends. Why is this ? It is necessary that the bones 
be both light and strong. Now a tube, like a straw, 
is much stronger than the same 
amount of material would be in 
the solid form of a rod. There- 
fore, the large bones are hollow 
in order that they may be as strong 
as possible for their weight. 

The ends of the long bones are 
filled with little bands of bone, 
giving them a honey-combed or 
spongy appearance, as shown in 
Fig. 4. If one of the thin, flat 
bones of the head, or one of the 
small bones of the hand, should 
be cut open, there would be found 
in it this same spongy bone. 

The Marrow of Bone. — The large cavity inside the 
long bones, and all the little spaces in spongy bone, 
are filled with a yellowish or reddish material, called 
" marrow." This is largely made up of fat. 

Can Bone Bleed? — The bones are well supplied 
with blood vessels, even the hardest part of the bone 
having in it a great many small blood vessels. 
Nearly all these blood vessels are so small that they 




Fig. 4. — A section 
through the hip joint 
(reduced). The in- 
side of the end of 
the femur (A) is seen 
to consist of loose, 
spongy bone. 



8 



A HEALTHY BODY 



can be seen only by means of a microscope (see 
Figs. 5 and 6); yet if we examine the surface of a 
large bone of any animal, we can usually find one or 
more holes through which a blood vessel has 
passed. 

The Soft Part of Bone. — All the black, spider- 
shaped bodies in Fig. 6 are minute openings or 
holes, in which are the soft bone cells. Besides 

these true bone 
cells there are 
blood vessels and 
nerves, and a 
framework of 
soft fibres, all 
going to make up 
the soft part of 
bone. 

This is called 

Fig. 5. — A microscopic view of the minute canals the "animal mat- 




in bone, through which the blood vessels pass. 



ter" of bone, and 



can all be taken out by simply putting the bone into 
the fire. The shape of the bone will not be changed ; 
it will only become lighter and whiter. After the 
animal matter has all been burned out, the bone can 
easily be broken, and pounded into a fine powder. 

On the other hand, if we put another bone 
into a weak acid, we can take out of the bone 
the "mineral matter" that makes it hard and 
solid. When this is done, the bone will yet retain 



THE BONES 



9 



its former shape, although it can then be easily 
bent. 

Broken Bones. — When a bone is broken, the sur- 
geon places the broken ends together, and holds 
them in position by means of splints and bandages. 
Nature immediately begins the work of mending the 
bone. First, a liquid substance forms around the 
broken ends. This grad- 



ually becomes firmer and 
harder, and in a few 
weeks develops into true 
bony structure. Thus 
the ends become so firmly 
united that the bone is as 
strong as ever. 

Changes in Bone. — 
The bones are not fully 
developed until the per- 
son is at least twenty-five 
years of age. And it 
should be remembered 
that even after this they, 
in some degree, change 
their soft substance. When 




Fig. 6. — A small section of human 
bone, showing two blood vessels 
(A A) and a number of spider- 
shaped openings in which are 
the bone cells, magnified. 



the bones have an 
abundance of animal matter in them, as in early 
life, they can be moulded, and their natural form 
can be greatly changed. This is illustrated by the 
Chinese custom of binding the feet of their young 
girls until a permanent deformity is produced. 



CHAPTER III 

THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS 

The Bones of the Skull. — The bones of 
the skull make a complete covering, or 
tight box, for the brain, with only a few 
holes in it to allow the nerves and blood 
vessels to pass in and out. These bones 
also protect the organs of sight, smell, 
hearing, and taste. 

The Spinal Column. — The spinal col- 
umn (see Fig. 7) consists of twenty-four 
small bones, resembling that in Fig. 8, 
and also two irregular bones at the lower 
end of these. Between these bones, and 
attached to them, are soft cushions of 
gristle or cartilage. These cushions 
act as springs, so that walking, run- 
ning, and jumping may not jar the 
body too greatly. If all these cushions 
could be piled up together, they would 
make a mass over six inches in thick- 
ness, and it would be as elastic as so FlG - 7.— The 

, ,t X /, -n .-. spinal column, 

much rubber. It we walk or stand very seen from the 
much during the day, these cushions left side. 



THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS 



11 




Fig. 8 

bones of the spinal column 



become flattened; but during the night they regain 
their former thickness. On account of these cushions 
being so elastic, we are a trifle shorter at night than 

in the morning. For the 
same reason we are a trifle 
shorter when standing than 
when lying. If it were not 
for these cushions, we could 
not run or jump, or even 
Side view of one of the wa ]k ? without jarring, and 
perhaps greatly injuring, 
either the brain or the spinal cord. 

Each small bone of the spinal column has an open- 
ing in it, and in their natural position in the body 
these openings form a canal in which the spinal cord 
rests (see Fig. 9). This canal continues unbroken 
through the base of the 
skull, and thus we see that 
the spinal cord and the brain 
are connected. 

The Ribs. — There are 
twelve slender, curved 
bones on each side of the 
chest, called the ribs. 
Behind, they are all joined 
to the spinal column, while in front seven of them 
are joined to the breast-bone, three to each other, 
and two are not joined in front to anything, hence 
these two are called the •" floating ribs." 




Fig. 0. — Bone of spinal column, 
viewed from above. 



12 



A HEALTHY BODY 



The Breast-Bone. —The breast-bone (also called 
the sternum) is a flat bone in the middle of the 
front part of the chest, and is the bone to which 
most of the ribs are attached in front. 

The Arms. — There are five large bones and sev- 
eral small ones that belong to the arm. 

The collar-bone (the clavicle) extends from the 
front of the shoulders to the top of the breast-bone. 




Fig. 10. — (A) Front view of the right (B) Back view of the same 

shoulder-joint, without collar-bone. joint. 

(1) Scapula; (2) bony prominence on scapula; (8) humerus; (4) point 
of attachment of collar-bone. The ball (head) of the humerus is held 
tightly to the socket of the scapula by means of ligaments here shown. 

The shoulder-blade (or scapula) is behind the arm 
and between it and the spinal column. The meeting 
of the shoulder-blade, the collar-bone and the upper 
end of the arm bone make the shoulder (Fig. 10). 

Between the shoulder and the elbow there is one 
large bone, called the humerus. Between the elbow 
and the hand there are two bones. The bone on 
the thumb side is the radius, the other is the ulna. 



THE SKELETON AND THE JOINTS 13 

A number of small bones form the wrist and the 
hand, and these allow a variety of movements. 

The Legs. — The bones of the legs are much like 
those of the arms, — one large bone between the hip 
and the knee, called the femur, and two smaller 
ones between the knee and the foot. The bone 
prominent on the front of the leg is called the 
tibia, the other bone is the fibula. A small round 
bone, called the "knee cap," covers the knee joint 
in front. The legs are attached to the pelvis at the 
hip joints; the pelvic bones can be felt on the 
sides of the lower part of the trunk. 

There are a number of small bones in the feet, 
arranged, as in the case of the wrist and the hand, 
so as to render a variety of movements possible. 

The Joints. — There may be only two, or there may 
be several, bones forming a joint. The hip joint, 
which is shown in Fig. 11, is one of the most inter- 
esting of the different forms of joints. On the ends 
of the bones which come together to make a joint 
there is a kind of gristle called "cartilage." This 
is covered with a very thin membrane which is con- 
stantly secreting, or pouring out, a watery substance. 
This " joint water " serves the same purpose that oil 
does upon the joints or bearings of machinery. 

The Ligaments. — The bones are held in place at 
the joint by means of white, shining bands of tissue 
called "ligaments." See Fig. 11. A "sprain" is an 
injury to the ligaments. 



14 



A HEALTHY BODY 



Tight and Loose Joints — The ligaments of some 
persons are very firm, and the joints are not easily 
moved. In others the ligaments are not so firm, 
and the joints are more easily moved. We say of 
these latter that they are " loose-jointed." When a 





Fig. 11. — (A) Hip joint with outer 
ligaments removed ; (B) hip joint 
with ligaments in place. 



bone gets "out of joint," it breaks its way through 
these ligaments. 

Different Kinds of Joints. — Most of the joints are 
either "ball-and-socket" joints, or "hinge" joints. 
The hip and the shoulder are good illustrations of the 
" ball-and-socket joint," for they allow movements in 
every direction. The elbow is an illustration of the 
"hinge" joint, because, like the hinge of a door, it 
allows movements only in two directions. 



CHAPTER IV 



THE CARE OF THE BONES 



We have already learned that the bones of a young 
person are easily bent because there is so much ani- 
mal matter in them. So 
it is possible, simply by 
improper ways of walking 
and sitting, to deform the 
body and make it crooked 
and irregular. 

How to Have a Good 
Form. — If we wish to have 
a fine, erect form, we must 
endeavor to keep the 
bones of the spine in their 
natural position. If we do 
this when we are young, 
and when the bones are 
daily becoming more solid, 
then when our bodies are well developed we shall 
find that an easy, erect position in sitting and in 
walking is the natural one for us. 

How to Walk. — To keep the spine in its natural 
position we should walk with' the body erect and 




A Correct Standing Position 



16 



A HEALTHY BODY 



with the chest held high. If a person gets in the 
habit of "stooping" when he walks, or of sitting 
at the table " all bent over," the elastic cushions be- 
tween the spinal bones, even the bones themselves 

and some of the muscles 
attached to them, may 
become so changed that 
when he tries to 
straighten up, it is hard 
to do so; he is "round- 
shouldered." To get 
straight again, he must 
take exercises that will 
undo the damage done. 

Straight, or Crooked. — 
Let us look at two per- 
sons. One stands as 
" straight as an arrow " ; 
he sits upright at his 
table or desk, and people say, "What a fine form!" 
We should not pick out such a person as likely to 
have consumption, for he "looks so healthy." 

The other person is round-shouldered, his chest 
is narrow, it is an effort for him to run or jump, 
and he is subject to coughs and colds. We wish 
to tell him to " straighten up," but he would have 
to work long and patiently to do it now, for the 
bones are well filled with mineral matter, and the 
elastic cushions are unyielding. In youth we should 




An Incorrect Standing Position 



THE CARE OF THE BONES 



17 



throw off any inclination to stoop ; and should sit, 
stand, and walk in proper position, that we may 
make sure of having a good form and a healthy 
body. 

How to Stand. — When some persons stand they 
rest their weight on one foot ; this habit is sure to 
make the hip 
bones grow out 
of shape. It will 
bend the spine, 
and, sooner or 
later, make it in- 
cline toward one 
side. As a rule, 
it is better to 
stand with the 
weight of the 
body on both 
feet. To do 
this, one thing 
is certainly nec- 
essary — shoes that are comfortable. 

Proper Shoes. — When buying shoes it is customary 
to have them fitted while sitting on a chair or couch, 
and the dealer is cautioned " not to get them too 
large." So a snug fit is made. When the person 
stands and the weight of the body is thrown on the 
feet, the arch of the foot is flattened, and the foot 
thereby lengthened. The shoe that was 




One Correct Form of Sitting at Attention 



" snuo; " 



18 



A HEALTHY BODY 



before, is now too small, and great discomfort and 
possible harm follow. These consequences will be 
all the more marked if the shoe be made with a high 
heel. A high heel throws the whole body out of 
line, and is the cause of a number of most distress- 
ing complaints. The low " common-sense " heel is 

far better and much 
more comfortable. We 
hope our young friends 
will always choose it, 
showing by their choice 
that they care more for a 
healthy body than for 
passing fashions. 

Support for the Feet. — 
In all schoolrooms the 
seats should be low 
enough to let the 
pupil's feet rest on the 
floor. It is injurious 
for children to sit long 
without a support for their feet. 

Things to Avoid. — If we remember that the bones 
are filled with blood vessels, nerves, and cells, and 
that these cannot be in a sound condition unless 
they are fed with healthy blood, we can readily un- 
derstand, when we come to study about the effects 
of alcohol, that it has the power to hinder the 
growth of this important part of the body. 




A Good Position for Desk Work 



THE CARE OF THE BONES 



19 



The early use of tobacco, also, may seriously 
affect the proper development of the bones. Indeed, 

it may be put down 
as a very general 
rule that the use of 
tobacco and alcohol 
by the young may so 
affect the growth of 
the bones as to dwarf 
the w T hole body. 

Carrying School 
Books. — Boys and 




A Bad Position for Desk Work 

girls usually have some home study 
books to carry back and forth from 
school ; and they too often carry 
them in ways that are harmful. 
Notice for a day what the pupils in 
your school do with the books they 
are taking home. You will prob- 
ably find that many put them in a 
strap slung over one shoulder, much 
as the boy in this illustration is 
carrying his. Notice how badly his 
shoulders are twisted because the 






Books Should Not 
be Strapped and 
Carried Like This 



20 A HEALTHY BODY 

weight of the books comes on one side. If he car- 
ries them in this way, month after month, he will be 
likely to find that his shoulders are growing mis- 
shapen. But books must be carried, and it is often 
not convenient to balance the body properly by car- 
rying an equal lot of books on each arm. The next 
best plan is to carry the books either in a detached 
strap or in a bag, which can readily be shifted from 
one hand to the other. A bag serves also to keep 
the books clean, and in wet weather it keeps them 
dry. The illustration shows how a very simple and 
inexpensive school bag can be made. 




A Good School Bag 

Figure I shows the foundation of the bag, a strip of denim, 51 inches 
long and 14 inches wide. It is first folded 12 inches from each end on 
the edges B C. The edges A A are then sewed together, also the corre- 
sponding edges on the opposite side. This gives two pockets, each with 
an opening in the middle. For handles, a round hard-wood stick is 
passed inside the two folds at B C. Handles of leather or webbing are 
sewed to the goods under the sticks. Figure II shows the finished bag. 



CHAPTER V 
ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 

Custom has brought about an extensive use of a 
class of drinks whose nature is little understood by 
those who first begin to take them. The most com- 
mon of these drinks are beer, wine, cider, gin, rum, 
whiskey and brandy. The principal substance which 
makes these liquors intoxicating and dangerous is 
alcohol. The chief danger in alcohol is that it has 
the power to create in those who take it an al- 
most irresistible craving for more. 

What is Alcohol? — Alcohol is a liquid that is 
lighter than water, and colorless. It burns readily, 
giving very little light and no smoke, but a great 
deal of heat. 

Alcohol is a poison, — that is, a substance whose 
nature it is, when absorbed into the blood, to injure 
health or to destroy life. This does not mean that 
all forms of alcoholic drinks are immediately fatal, 
although, numerous cases are on record where alcohol 
in the form of whiskey or brandy has quickly 
destroyed life. Pure alcohol is not ordinarily used 
as a beverage ; it is taken in the form of some spir- 
ituous liquor in which it is more or less diluted. 



22 



A HEALTHY BODY 



Yet the nature of the alcohol is not changed by 
dilution. 

How Alcohol is Formed. — In ripe fruits, like the 
grapes and apples, there is a 
large amount of juice which 
consists chiefly of water 
and sugar. By crushing these 
fruits and pressing out their 
juice a sweet liquid is ob- 
tained. When this sweet 
liquid is exposed to the warm 
air, bubbles will soon be seen 
rising to the surface, while 
the juice will begin to have a 
sharp, stinging taste. It is 
^y evident that some change has 
taken place in the liquid. 
This change is called "fer- 
mentation." There are various forms of fermenta- 
tion. That which produces alcohol is called " alco- 
holic fermentation." 

What Causes Fermentation. — When we look closely 
at ripening fruit, it usually appears to be covered 
with a kind of dust often called the " bloom " of the 
fruit. In this dust are minute plant cells which are 
plentiful in the air and on the skins and stems of 
fruits about the time they are ripening. These plant 
cells have been called ferments, since they are the 
cause of fermentation. There are many kinds of fer- 




ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 



23 



merits. Those that cause alcoholic fermentation in 
pressed-out fruit juices are very much like the plant 
cells found in bakers' yeast. For this reason they have 
been called " wild yeast plants." When yeast plants 
are examined by the aid of the microscope, they 
are seen to consist of minute 
cell-like bodies, belonging to 
the vegetable kingdom. Each 
cell must be regarded as a 
complete plant, although it 
would require 3,000 of these 
cells in a line, side by side, to 
cover a single inch. 

As long as the wild yeast 
plants are on the outside of 
the fruit and cannot reach 
the sweet juice within, they 
do no harm ; but when the 
apples or grapes are crushed, 
as in the making of cider or 
wine, the yeast plants on the 

surface are washed into the juice and immediately 
begin to attack the sugar, breaking it down and 
forming two new substances, — carbon dioxide, 
which is a gas, and alcohol. 

Cider. — Cider is a drink made from the juice of 
apples. When the juice is first pressed from the 
apples there is no alcohol in it, but if it is exposed 
to the warm air it will begin to ferment in from 





24 A HEALTHY BODY 

six to eight hours. We now understand why this is 
so, for the yeast plants which are present in large 
numbers on the skin of the apple are mixed with 
the fresh juice in the process of crushing and 
pressing. 

Fermentation in cider-making is often hastened 
because frequently there is, mixed with the freshly 

pressed juice, a little re- 
maining in the mill from a 
previous grinding, and in 
this juice there is an extra 
quantity of the yeast fer- 
ment in an active condition. 

Fig. 12.-Yeast plants highly No one WOU ld make any 

objection to the use of fresh 
cider if it could be obtained before it had fermented ; 
but it is almost impossible to procure it in that 
condition. The yeast plants are present in sweet 
cider in such large numbers and they are so active 
that some fermentation soon takes place. In a 
short time after the juice has been pressed from the 
apples and left in moderately warm air, a differ- 
ence can be noticed in the taste of the cider. The 
new taste is due to the change of the sugar into 
carbon dioxide and alcohol. An appetite for stronger 
liquors can be easily formed from cider-drinking. 

Wine. — When such fruits as grapes and currants 
are crushed and their juice pressed out, yeast 
germs are washed from their surfaces into the 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 25 

juice, where they soon begin to change the sugar 
into carbon dioxide and alcohol. The liquid is 
then called wine. The amount of alcohol in wine 
depends partly upon the amount of sugar the fer- 
ments find ill the juice. After a certain amount of 
alcohol has been produced it stops the growth of 
the ferments and may even kill them. 

It is the alcohol in wine that makes it a danger- 
ous drink. A wine may be home-made and free 
from any poisonous drugs that might be added to 
give it color or taste, yet if it has fermented it con- 
tains alcohol, which is a poison, and for this reason 
it should, be shunned. Every year thousands go 
down to drunkards' graves because they thought 
they would not be harmed by taking a little wine 
or beer or cider. Thousands more who do not be- 
come drunkards die of diseases they might have 
resisted if they had not undermined their health 
by the use of these alcoholic drinks. 

Beer. — The solid parts of most ripe grains, such 
as corn and barley, consist almost entirely of starch. 
If these ripe grains are moistened and kept warm, 
they will soon begin to grow or " sprout." During 
this growth the starch in the grains is changed to 
sugar. In beer making, this sugar is easily ob- 
tained from such sprouted grains by crushing them 
and adding water to the crushed mass. The water 
will dissolve the sugar, and by drawing the water 
off, a sweet liquid is obtained. To this are added 



26 A HEALTHY BODY 

hops, which give a bitter flavor, and yeast to pro- 
duce alcoholic fermentation. The carbon dioxide 
which is formed escapes, but the alcohol remains 
mixed w r ith the liquid. Ale and porter are made 
in a similar manner. 

The reason that beer and other malt liquors are 
unsafe drinks is because they contain alcohol, which 
has the power to give the drinker a craving for 
more. The idea that there is no harm in a glass of 
beer is a mistaken one. The habitual use of beer 
as well as of other alcoholic drinks tends to injure 
the health and the character of the drinker. 

Other Ferments. — Beside yeast there are other fer- 
ments, as the mould often seen on old bread, cheese, 
leather, and other objects. There is also a class of 
minute germs called " bacteria," which are so small 
that the highest powers of the microscope must be 
used in order to see them. And yet so carefully 
have these been studied that it is now possible to 
classify them and often to tell precisely what work 
they do. 

Alcohol is Changed in Making Vinegar. — The fer- 
mentation which produces beer, wine, or cider from 
the action of the yeast plant on sugar is called alco- 
holic or vinous fermentation. When this has gone 
on until the sugar in the fermenting liquid is all 
changed, or until the ferments are themselves killed 
by the alcohol they have produced, the alcoholic 
fermentation ceases. Then another ferment, which 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 27 

is a kind of bacteria, enters, and begins to change 
the alcohol into acetic acid. This fermentation 
changes wine or cider into vinegar. Vinegar is 
used to flavor food, and is a marked illustration of 
how ferments change the substances upon which 
they work, as from the sweet juice of the apples 
we may at last have a sharp acid. 

A Universal Law. — Fermentation entirely changes 
the nature of the substances upon which it works. 
We see this repeatedly illustrated. The juice of 
ripe fruits will not burn, neither is there anything 
in it that will intoxicate. The grape is wholesome 
until it begins to decay. So also is its juice whole- 
some while it is in the ripe fruit ; but it is quickly 
changed after being pressed out and exposed in 
warm air to the action of the yeast ferments. Milk 
is wholesome, but if it is left in the warm air, fer- 
ments act upon it and it becomes sour. Beef is 
wholesome, but if we use it as food after the 
bacteria have caused its decay, we may suffer 
severely. 

From this we learn that although beer is made 
from wholesome grain it is not necessarily a health- 
ful drink. Alcohol is the result of a fermentation 
which changes the nature of the substance upon 
which it works. 

The Alcoholic Appetite. — As in the case of opium 
and some other poisons, the alcohol in beer, wine, 
cider, or in any such liquor, has, as we have seen, 



28 A HEALTHY BODY 

the power to create a desire for more. When we 
are thirsty a small amount of water will satisfy us, 
and the next time no more water will be required 
than before. But with alcohol it is different. A 
little has the power to create a desire for more ; and 
this desire is likely to increase as the system comes 
more and more under its influence. No one can 
foretell how much resistance he may have against 
alcohol without taking a risk that may ruin his life. 
Instances are on record where a person having such 
an appetite has been able to hold it in check for a 
long time, and then one drink, or an accidental taste 
of an alcoholic liquor, has aroused an irresistible 
craving that has led to swift destruction. To escape 
the mastery of alcohol, all drinks that contain it, 
even in small quantities, should be strictly avoided. 
Even such light drinks as fermented cider and 
home-made beer should be shunned, as well as des- 
serts flavored with brandy or wine. They all con- 
tain a certain quantity of alcohol, and although this 
amount may be small, yet wherever alcohol is, there 
danger lurks. 

Many persons begin the use of alcoholic liquors 
determined to be only moderate drinkers, but they 
often find, when it is too late, that alcohol has created 
a craving that is stronger than their desire to resist. 
Here lies the great difference between practicing 
moderation in the use of ordinary food and drink, 
and trying to be moderate in the use of alcoholic 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 29 

drinks. It is reasonable to expect that by cultivat- 
ing and exercising proper self-control one can easily 
resist the temptation to overeat or to drink too much 
milk or lemonade. But attempting to exercise self- 
control in the use of alcoholic drinks is quite differ- 
ent, because alcohol has the power to weaken self- 
control. Ordinary food and drink have no such 
power. 

Alcoholic drinks are not necessary to the highest 
success or enjoyment. By refusing them no one 
loses the respect of any person whose good opinion 
is worth retaining. With this as with temptations 
to all other forms of unwise or improper indulgence, 
moral courage and character are strengthened by 
resisting, but weakened by yielding. 

How Fast Will It Grow? — The alcoholic appetite 
does not grow equally fast upon all persons. It 
comes upon its victim before he is aware. No one 
intends to become a hard drinker when he first 
drinks beer or wine. As a rule that is done thought- 
lessly. But it is this peculiar power that alcohol 
has of creating an appetite for its increasing use 
that leads to ruin. 

Whom It Will Affect. — Although persons of an 
active, generous and sensitive nature seem to be 
more quickly and more seriously aifected, yet none 
are sure of escape. It may overcome persons of all 
ages, sexes or dispositions and in all conditions of 
life. It harms the young more in comparison than 



30 A HEALTHY BODY 

it does grown persons, because the growing body is 
less able to resist all injurious influences than the 
body whose strength is no longer needed for growth. 
But danger from the use of alcohol does not cease 
when the youth becomes a man. Out of sixty-five 
drunkards who were recently questioned on this 
subject, eighteen, nearly one-third, stated that they 
took their first glass after they were twenty-one. 

It is not wise for any one to think that he would 
be stronger to resist a craving for alcohol than 
others have been who have failed to do so. A noted 
German professor of hygiene* says that no one can 
foretell whether or not he is susceptible to alcohol. 
He finds out only by playing a game of chance with 
his life, which is a dangerous experiment. 

Yeast in Bread-Making. — If yeast is a ferment which 
can so quickly produce alcohol from a sweet mix- 
ture, why is it that there is no alcohol in bread ? It 
is true that in both cases alcohol is formed, bat in 
the first case the alcohol remains in the substance 
used, while in the second case the alcohol escapes. 
In making bread, yeast is added to the moistened 
flour. This yeast acts upon the small amount of 
sugar present, changing it into carbon dioxide and 
alcohol. The gas becomes imprisoned in the sticky 
dough, making a great number of larger or smaller 
openings. 

* Professor Max Gruber, president of the Royal Institute of 
Hygiene at Munich, 



ALCOHOLIC DRINKS 31 

These cause the bread to be light and porous. 
As the bread is baked, the heat in the oven causes 
the small amount of alcohol to evaporate, and it 
out of the bread, together with the eras. 



WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE ? 
In Making Bread In Making Beer 

1. Starch. 1. Starch. 

2. Sugar. " 2. Sugar. 

3. Yeast. 3. Yeast. 

4. Alcohol and carbon dioxide. 4. Alcohol and carbon dioxide. 

5. The alcohol is evaporated. 5. The alcohol is retained. 

Eesult 
A valuable food free from any A drink containing a danger- 
poison, ous poison. 

THE AMOUNT OF ALCOHOL IN FERMENTED LIQUORS 

In 100 parts of cider there are from 5 to 7 parts of alcohol. 

" " " " beer " " " 5 to 7 " " 
« <c u .« wine « « « 1Q tQ 2Q „ u 



CHAPTER VI 
THE MUSCLES 

Their Number, Size, and Purpose. — There are more 
than five hundred muscles in the body, nearly all of 
which are arranged in pairs, so that the two sides of 
the body are almost alike. Some of these muscles 
are very small and short, while others reach from 
the hip to the knee. Their principal use is to move 
the different parts of the body ; but they also aid in 
giving proper shape to the body, and in enclosing 
cavities, — as the mouth. Nearly half the weight of 
the body is due to muscle. 

Two Kinds of Muscles. — The muscles are divided 
into two classes, — the voluntary and the involuntary. 

We can move some muscles whenever we wish, 
as, for instance, those of the face and the arm. Be- 
cause we are thus able to control their movements, 
they are called voluntary. But some muscles cannot 
be controlled in this way. They do their work 
whether we wish it or not. We cannot control 
their movements by the will, so they are called invol- 
untary. The muscles of the stomach and the heart 
are of this variety. The heart beats and the stomach 
contracts, and we have no power to stop them. 



THE MUSCLES 33 

The Uses of Muscles. — Nearly all the voluntary 
muscles are attached at each end to bone ; it is be- 
cause they contract and move the bones that we are 
able to run and jump and perforin all the 
movements of which the body is capable. 

Two Parts of a Muscle. — The muscles 
that are under the control of the will 
consist of two parts, — the large red por- 
tion, called the body ; and the white 
shining cords, called the tendons, which 
attach the ends of the muscles to the 
bones. 

The Tendons. — The tendons are easily 
seen by examining the muscles, or flesh, 
on the leg of a fowl, after the removal 
of the skin. They can also be felt at the 
wrist when the finders are moved. 

Nearly all the muscles of the fore-arm 
end in tendons near the wrist. The FlG i3*_The 
tendons are fastened to the bones of the muscles of 
fingers, so that when the muscles of the e ,. ai 

o ? ending m 

arm or fore-arm contract, they draw the white 
these tendons, and thus move the fingers. tendons at 

Size of the Tendons. — The tendons are 
always much smaller than the muscles to which they 
belong. This is well illustrated in Eig. 13. The 
muscles at the middle of the fore-arm, as shown in 
the figure, are quite large, while the tendons at the 
wrist are so small that you can reach around the 



34 



A HEALTHY BODY 



wrist with the thumb and finger. This makes the 
movements at the wrist more free and easy. 

The largest tendon in the body is attached to the 
heel. Its muscle forms the fleshy part of the back 
of the leg. When that muscle contracts, the tendon 
draws up the heel. 

The muscle is the active part; the tendon is only 
a cord which can be pulled by the muscle. 

The Structure of Muscle — If a piece of boiled, lean 




Fig. 14. — A, a muscle relaxed; B, the same muscle contracted. 

meat, which is voluntary muscle, be examined, it will 
be seen that it readily falls apart into little threads 
of tissue ; and with needles these little threads may 
be easily divided into still smaller threads. If one 
of these small threads is placed under the micro- 
scope it will be found to consist of many still smaller 
threads. Therefore we say that voluntary muscle 
is made up of many small threads, all bound to- 
gether. 

Involuntary muscle is composed of very small 
cells which are placed close together. 



THE MUSCLES 



35 




The Contraction of Muscle. — The muscles are of 
use to us because they have the power to contract. 

When a muscle contracts, it becomes thicker, 
harder, and shorter; notice Fig. 14. That it becomes 
harder and thicker 
is easily shown by 
pressing the thumb 
on the end of the 
little finger, and 
placing the fingers 
of the other hand 
on the ball of the 
thumb. It can also 
be shown by plac- 
ing the hand on the 
front of the upper 
arm and raising the 
fore-arm; the mus- 
cle will be felt to 
swell and harden. 

That the muscle Fig. 16. 

shortens, is proved by the fact that it moves the 
parts to which it is attached. All the movements of 
the body are made by the contraction of its muscles. 

The two diagrams above show how the contrac- 
tion, or shortening, of the muscles causes the parts 
to which they are attached to move. In Figs. 15 
and 16 it is clear that when the muscle on the front 
of the arm contracts, the fore-arm and the hand 



Fig. 15. — A, the muscle in 
the front of the arm (the 
biceps), contracted; raising 
the fore-arm. Fig. 16. — B, 
muscle in the back of the 
arm (the triceps), con- 
tracted; drawing the fore- 
arm down. 



36 



A HEALTHY BODY 



are raised ; while when the muscle on the back of 
the arm shortens, it pulls on its tendon and the 
fore-arm and hand are drawn down again. 

This principle is again illustrated in Figs. 17 and 





A, muscle on the front 
of the leg (the tibialis) 
contracted, which 
raises the foot. 



Fig. 18 

B, muscle on the back 
of the leg (the gas- 
trocnemius) con- 
tracted, which raises 
the heel and thus 
draws down the foot. 



18. It is clear that when the muscle on the front 
of the leg shortens, it pulls on its tendon and raises 
the foot ; while if the muscle on the back of the leg 
shortens, it pulls on its tendon and raises the heel. 
These illustrations show the principle on which all 
the voluntary muscles act. 



CHAPTEE VII 
EXERCISE 

Exercise of the Muscles. — If a person should place 
his arm in a sling and not use it for a few months, 
it would gradually become smaller and smaller. 
The arm would become smaller because its muscles 
would not be properly nourished. Indeed, after a 
few months, some of the muscles might disappear. 
On the other hand, when muscles are properly ex- 
ercised, they become better nourished and this 
makes them larger, harder, and stronger. 

Exercise is Necessary. — It is absolutely necessary 
to exercise the muscles, if we wish to keep them 
healthy and strong. Exercise makes the blood cir- 
culate better; so it follows that when we are exer- 
cising our muscles, we are also giving a better 
circulation to the blood in the brain and in the 
other organs of the body. 

Over-Exercise is Bad.— Still, over-exercise is nearly 
as bad as no exercise. It is not a good practice to 
play or exercise in any way until one is " all tired 
out." 

Exercise all Parts of the Body.— We should not ex- 
ercise any particular part of the body to the neglect 



38 



A HEALTHY BODY 



of any other part, but we should endeavor to 
develop all parts equally well. No one admires a 
man who has very strong muscles but an inactive* 
brain ; neither do we like to see one who is very 



EhRb I ii 


; m 






L**W 


H ^v 2 4 



Vacation School Boys Taking Regular Exercise Out-of-Doors 



learned, and yet has a weak, sickly body, 
fore, if we have been studying all day, a br 
in the evening will make us feel refreshed ; 
we have been using the muscles at hard wor 
the day, reading or studying is the proper 
Expression. — The various expressions of 
are caused by the contraction of voluntary 



There- 
isk walk 

while if 
k during 
exercise. 

the face 
muscles ; 



EXERCISE 



39 



and as a muscle is strengthened by exercise, so it 
follows that those muscles of the face which are 
used the most will become the strongest. 

If the muscles we use when we laugh are made 
to contract very often they will become stronger 




A Girls' Model Class in Light Gymnastics 

than their neighbors ; so that even when a person 
is not thinking of laughing, these muscles Avill 
exert an influence. As a result there is a slight 
expression of laughter left on the face. We say 
such a person has a pleasant smile all the time. If 
a person cries a great deal, there will be left a 
slight expression of crying. We say such a person 
has a sad face. If a person is in the habit of 
beine cross and sullen, it will leave its effect on 
the features. 



40 A HEALTHY BODY 

So we see that the expression which is most often 
on the face will after a time become lasting. This 
is the reason why it is possible to tell the disposition 
of a person by the expression of the face. 

Do yon wish to have a hard and ill-natured 
face ? Then while young fill the mind with hard 
and ill-natured thoughts. Do you prefer a face that 
shows kindness and honesty ? Then cultivate a 
pleasant disposition, show kindness, and be honest 
to all. Let the mind be filled with only those 
thoughts which are true and noble and kind. 

General Exercise. — Exercise should be taken out 
of doors as much as possible, since pure air is of the 
greatest importance. 

Any exercise is too violent which leaves the 
body exhausted. It not only makes one unfit to do 
work of any kind, but also is likely to injure the 
nervous system. Healthful exercise causes refresh- 
ing sleep, brings a restful feeling and, after rest, a 
desire to work. 

When and How to Exercise. — We should not exer- 
cise vigorously either just before or just after a 
meal. We should take some kind of exercise each 
day. Walking to and from school is not enough, 
neither will it do to study all the school days, and 
then play all day Saturday. 

Baseball, basket ball, and lawn tennis are good 
for the summer days ; the sled, the skates, and snow- 
balling make good sport for winter. 



EXERCISE 



41 



The Muscles Must Rest. — The muscles need rest, 
and nearly all of them get complete rest when we 
sleep. But the heart, which is a great hollow mus- 
cle, keeps beating away during the night as well as 
during the day. Yet we shall learn that it, too, has 
its time of rest. 




Ax Exciting Moment in the Game of Basket Ball 



Jumping Rope. — This form of sport is very in- 
jurious when it is carried to excess, as is frequently 
the case. Jumping rope is in itself a good exercise; 
but it seems to make even sensible girls careless and 
reckless. We see them trying to find out how many 
times they can jump the rope without resting; this 
often results in temporary illness, and sometimes 
in permanent injury to the nervous system. 

Alcohol and Muscle. — Men have given a great deal 
of time to finding out just what effect alcohol has 



42 A HEALTHY BODY 

on the muscles of the body. They know that if 
we take good, nourishing food, when we are hungry 
and the body is weak, we feel strong again. They 
know, too, that we cannot at once make ourselves 
strong by eating a great deal. 

Let us think of a man who is hard at work in a 
shop, using his muscles many hours each day. He 
eats three hearty meals a day, and feels well and 
strong. Now suppose he wants to work twice as 
hard as usual some afternoon. Do you think he 
could do it more easily if he should eat two big 
dinners ? Most certainly not. 

But when men began to use alcohol, they said: 
"Here is something that will allow us to work 
twice as hard as usual, and will not let us get tired." 

Is this true? Does alcohol actually make one 
stronger? Does it help one to do more work, with- 
out suffering from it in any way ? Let us think a 
moment before we answer. 

Have you ever been very sick ? If so, when you 
were getting better, and were once more walking 
about, you may have felt as well and strong as ever, 
yet when you attempted to lift anything, or to run, 
you found then that your feelings were no safe 
guide. You were weak, and could not do what you 
expected. 

Now, our workman in the shop tries a glass of 
something that contains alcohol, it may be beer, 
whiskey, or brandy, and he says that it makes him 



EXERCISE 43 

feel so much stronger. The real question is this : 
Is he any stronger ? Are his feelings a true test ? 

It is proved beyond a doubt that when the sys- 
tem is under the influence of alcohol, the muscles 
will not contract as strongly as before. The work- 
man is not made stronger by his glass of liquor. 
He may feel as though he could do more work, but 
when put to the test, he cannot do as much as he 
could without the liquor. The effect of alcohol 
varies with different individuals. Small amounts 
with some persons may increase the action of the 
muscles for a short time ; but the sum total of work 
done under the influence of alcohol is less than that 
done without it. 

It is said that some forms of drink, such as beer 
and ale, make the muscles larger. They certainly do 
tend to make some persons grow fat, but this is 
very different from growing strong. To load the 
body with a great quantity of fat is positively 
injurious. Beer and ale tend to make an excess of 
fat. This hinders the proper action of the muscles, 
and may seriously interfere with the action of many 
other parts of the body. 

As a rule, very fleshy people are neither so strong, 
nor so healthy, as those who have less fat, and more 
hard muscle. 



CHAPTER VIII 

OUR FOODS 

Varieties of Food. — Some animals appear to be 
almost constantly taking small quantities of food. 
The common canary bird keeps very busy cracking 
seeds, and swallowing the kernels. Others eat enor- 




A Squirrel E.njoylng a Meal 

mous quantities of food at one time, and afterwards 
lie quiet, and perhaps sleep for days. Still others, 
as the dog, do not chew their food, but simply tear 
it just enough to enable them to swallow it. The 
cow gathers the grass very fast, and swallows it 
quickly. Then, while resting, she brings the food 
back to her mouth and thoroughly chews it. Some 



OUR FOODS 45 

animals can live on only one kind of food. The 
horse lives on grass, fresh or dried, and on grain; 
never eating meat of any kind. The squirrel likes 
the kernels of nuts, and does not care for grass. 
But man uses food from all three kingdoms, the 
vegetable, the mineral, and the animal. 

The Purpose of Food. — As the movements of ma- 
chinery tend to wear it out, so every motion of the 
body causes some portion of it to wear away. Food 
is needed to furnish new material to take the place 
of that which is worn out. The body of a young 
child is much smaller than the natural size of the 
man or woman. The child has gradually to build 
for himself a larger body. This we call growth. 
Food is needed to furnish building material for the 
growing body. The human body cannot live or 
grow unless it is kept warm. The warming of the 
body corresponds in some respects to the warming of 
a room. We put wood or coal, which we call fuel, 
into a stove or furnace and burn it. In burning, 
the fuel gives off heat, which warms the room. Food 
's needed to serve as fuel for warming the body. 

You have seen the flames of burning wood, and 
the red glow of burning coal, and perhaps the word 
" burning " means to you always a flame, or a red glow. 
But there are other kinds of burning. Perhaps you 
have seen cold water thrown upon lime, which, as it 
united with the water, began to bubble and send off 
heat. Here a wet mass, with no red flame or glow, 



A HEALTHY BODY 



gives rise to heat. In this respect the burning of 
food in the body is more like the union of lime and 
water than it is like the burning of wood and coal, 
but the heat produced is not so great. 

The burning of food in the body is called " oxi- 
dation." Food furnishes the material for this oxi- 
dation which keeps the body warm and gives it 
strength and energy for work. A horse that is well 
fed comes out of his stall full of energy, eager to 
use his muscles, while the poorly fed horse is weak. 
Food is needed by all animals to supply them with 
energy for their proper work. 

The twofold purpose of food is (1) to supply 
the body with building material for growth and 
for the repair of waste ; (2) to give it fuel for 
warmth and for working power. 

Any material which acts contrary to these pur- 
poses, that is, which tends to hinder growth or to 
reduce the heat or the working power of the body, 
cannot, of course, be called a food. 

Definition of a Food. — All the above may be briefly 
stated in the following definition of a food : A food is 
any substance whose nature it is to build up the 
body and to repair its waste, or to supply it with 
energy for warmth and for work, without doing it 
injury. 

Foods from the Mineral Kingdom. — The two princi- 
pal articles that we use from the mineral kingdom 
are water and salt. 



OUR FOODS 47 

Salt. — Salt is found in every tissue of the body 
except the enamel of the teeth. As it is so gener- 
ally distributed throughout the body, we must take 
it with our food, or we suffer greatly. Salt is natu- 
rally present in nearly all the foods we use, but only 
in quantities so small that there is not enough fur- 
nished in this way to meet the demands of the 
system ; therefore we add it to our food. 

Its Uses. — Salt supplies a demand of the body, 
and gives flavor to the food, thus making it more 
pleasant to us ; it also causes the digestive juices to 
flow more freely. 

It is Necessary. — Experiments have been made 
on animals to find out the effect of depriving 
them of salt. It was found that their hides 
became rough, their eyes grew dull, they were 
less active, and at last they lost their health and 
strength. 

A Natural Demand for It. — The farmer knows how 
quickly his sheep will come at his call if they 
have learned that by so doing they can get some 
of this necessary food. Cattle will eat the coarsest 
kind of fodder if salt has been sprinkled over it. 
This shows the natural demand of the body for this 
mineral substance. In some parts of the world salt 
is very valuable. Fifty years ago it was expensive 
even in our own country. Sometimes it would take 
a whole load of wheat to purchase a single barrel of 
it. At the present time it is very cheap and plen- 



48 A HEALTHY BODY 

tiful. In some places a dollar or two will now buy 
all the coarse salt that a horse can draw away. 

Water. — Nearly three-fourths of the weight of 
the body is composed of water. If a person weighs 
120 pounds, it is estimated that 85 pounds will be 
water. This fact alone is sufficient to show how 
important it is that we should drink plenty of pure 
water. The craving for water is greater than for 
food, and those who have been deprived of it de- 
scribe their sufferings as terrible. A person will die 
sooner if deprived of water than if deprived of food. 

Large Quantities Taken. — We little suspect how 
much water we take into the body each day. 
Every kind of food we use contains it. When we 
eat beef we take over one half its weight in water. 
Potatoes, that look so dry and mealy, are three 
fourths water ; even dry sugar contains a large 
amount of it, while milk consists of nearly nine- 
tenths water. So if we do not purposely drink 
water, we still use a great deal of it. A healthy 
man takes with his food and as drink about two 
quarts of water each day, and it is necessary that 
it be taken in these large quantities; without it 
the blood and other fluids could not properly per- 
form their work, and even the muscles and tendons 
would suffer. 

Other Substances with Water. — The water we use 
for drinking always contains some mineral matter, 
some gases, and occasionally some vegetable matter. 



OUR FOODS 49 

Wlien the mineral matter, chiefly lime, is not in 
excess, it is useful to the system. As lime is so 
important in the formation of the teeth and the 
bones, water that has a small amount of lime in it 
must be regarded as healthful, especially when the 
tissues are growing during early life. When water is 
carried through lead pipes it may dissolve enough of 
the lead to act as a poison when taken into the body, 
and so we should never drink water that has stood 
in lead pipes. If such pipes are used, the water 
should be allowed to run through them until all 
that has been standing in them has been drawn off. 

A Cause of Sickness. — Impure drinking-water is 
the cause of much sickness, and thousands of deaths 
occur each year as a result of its use. The fact 
that water looks clear and has no odor is not posi- 
tive proof that it is pure, for it may even then 
contain bacteria that will cause serious disease. 
Filth is the cause of many diseases, and of typhoid 
fever in particular. If we wish to escape this disease, 
we must be sure that our drinking-water is free 
from filth of every kind. 

Where is the Well ? — There is a very general idea 
that in order to get good drinking-water, it is only 
necessary to dig a hole anywhere in the ground. 
This is a great mistake. The well should never be in 
the house, nor near the barn, nor should it ever be near 
any place where there is any filthy matter. We 
must not forget that the causes of disease may be 



50 A HEALTHY BODY 

carried through the soil for a considerable distance? 
and in this manner reach a well that is many feet 
away, especially if the soil is sandy, or slQpes 
toward that well. A well should be at least fifty 
feet from any filthy place, and if possible, above the 
house, barn and any out-buildings. 

To Purify Water. — In cities, where good water is 
not easily obtained, it is a wise plan to boil the 
water before drinking it. This is especially true 
when the water supply is taken from a river ; then 
the water should always be boiled. After boiling, 
it can be set aside to cool. Ice should not be put 
into it, but around it. 

Too Much Water Injurious. — It is not wise to drink 
too much water with our meals, as it weakens the 
digestive juices, and is a frequent cause of stomach 
troubles. It is certainly a very bad practice to chill 
the stomach by putting ice-cold water into it. 

Foods from the Animal Kingdom. — The animal 
foods serve largely to build up and to repair the 
body. They do this because of certain elements in 
them which are called proteids. At the head of 
the list of foods from the animal kingdom we should 
place eggs. This is because they are easily digested, 
when properly cooked, and are also very nourishing. 
When soft boiled in the shell, or when dropped into 
boiling water and lightly cooked, they make a food 
which is usually acceptable to all. Hard boiled 
eggs, however, are not easily digested. 



OUR FOODS 51 

Beef is undoubtedly the best meat for general 
use. Tender beef, properly cooked, is easily digested, 
and agrees with most persons. Mutton is nearly as 
good as beef; but there are persons with whom it 
does not agree. Veal is neither so digestible nor so 
nourishing as mutton and beef. Lamb is more 
easily digested than veal, but not so nourishing as 
mutton. Pork is very difficult to digest. It is eaten 
by a great many persons, and to those who have 
strong digestive powers it appears to do no harm, 
but it should never be eaten by those whose stomachs 
are weak. Lobsters and crabs are exceedingly diffi- 
cult to digest, and should be avoided by invalids. 

Foods from the Vegetable Kingdom. — The principal 
grains used as foods are wheat, corn, oats, and rice, 
all of which contain a large quantity of starch. 
These foods are very important to mankind, millions 
of human beings eating scarcely anything else. 

While starch is the principal substance in these 
grains, yet mineral matter, oil, and fat are present 
also. Wheat stands at the head as the most useful 
of the grains ; in addition to the starch, etc., it con- 
tains a considerable amount of proteid (which we 
have found is in meats), and so wheat is a very im- 
portant food. Oatmeal contains starch and a good 
supply of mineral matter ; it is a wholesome food, 
easily digested when sufficiently cooked, and to 
most persons agreeable. 

Among vegetables the potato is the most gener- 



52 



A HEALTHY BODY 



ally used ; it is composed almost entirely of starch 
and water. Peas and beans are very nourishing (they 




Young Farmers 



heir Cabbages in a School Garden 



are rich in proteid), but are hard to digest, and should 
not be eaten freely by one who does not do out-door 
work. Hence, they are suitable for the farmer, but 



OUR FOODS 53 

not for the student. Turnips, cabbages, parsnips 
and onions are common vegetable foods that serve to 
give us a suitable variety. They are not very nutri- 
tious, nor are they easily digested ; yet they supply 
a certain need of the body, for the health soon suffers 
if fresh vegetables are entirely left out of the diet. 

Apples, peaches, and various other fruits are useful 
to us in many ways. The acids they contain increase 
the appetite and, in this way, aid the digestion, while 
the water they contain serves to quench the thirst ; 
but they are not very nourishing. If uncooked, they 
are most wholesome for us when eaten before meals 
and in the early part of the day; but if cooked, they 
can be eaten with any meal. Dried fruits and nuts 
should be eaten sparingly and as a part of the meal. 
Nuts while very nourishing are hard to digest. 
They must be chewed fine. Many people who do 
not eat meat use nuts in its place. 

Sugar. — Sugar forms an important article of our 
diet, and a proper amount of it should be eaten. It 
is found in large or small quantities in nearly all 
our food ; and when added to certain articles of 
food, it makes them more pleasant to the taste. 
When eaten in too large quantities it is likely to 
cause trouble with the stomach, and with the liver, 
and thus to injure the health. « If we desire to 
satisfy our natural appetite for sweet things, it is 
better to use simple, home-made candies than to buy 
cheap and highly colored candies from the stores. 



54 A HEALTHY BODY 

Milk. — Milk must be regarded as a perfect food. 
It contains in a digestible form all the elements most 
necessary for the support of the body. Many forms 
of stomach disease are cured by a diet of milk alone, 
and it is given by physicians in fevers and other 
diseases. Great care should be taken to keep milk 
sweet and pure, as it will readily absorb gases, — a 
fact easily proved by placing a bunch of onions near 
a pan of milk in a closed box. The milk will soon 
be tainted by the gas from the onions, and will show 
it in taste and odor. Milk should be kept closely 
covered, and should be placed in a clean ice box, or 
in a room where the air is always pure and sweet. 

If the value of milk as a food were better under- 
stood it would be much more largely used. For 
adults it may be used as a drink with the ordinary 
meals. During the cold weather of winter it may 
be taken warm. Even during the heat of summer 
it should not be taken into the stomach ice cold. 
Large quantities of iced milk are certainly injurious, 
especially when taken with meals. 

Cream and Butter — Butter is a most important 
article of diet. It is valuable because it supplies 
the body with needed fatty material, and also 
because it gives flavor to other foods, thus making 
them the more readily eaten and digested. It is 
composed principally of the fat of milk. Under the 
microscope milk is found to consist of a large num- 
ber of minute oil-drops floating in water. We know 



OUR FOODS 55 

that oil is lighter than water, and that when the 
two are shaken together and allowed to stand, the 
oil will rise to the top. So when milk is allowed to 
stand, the oil will rise to the surface. This oil is 
called cream. Churning cream is simply beating 
these minute oil-drops of milk into one solid mass. 

Buttermilk, Skim Milk, Cheese. — Buttermilk is a 
wholesome, cooling drink. Skim milk contains a 
small amount of fat and some of the mineral matter 
found in milk. Cheese is used principally as a 
relish and is difficult of digestion. 

Fuel Foods.— We have learned that some foods, 
like eggs, meat, and wheat, contain proteids and 
serve to build up the body and to repair its daily 
waste. There are other foods which are rich in 
starch, sugar, or fat, that are called fuel foods. 
They keep the body warm and supply the energy 
with which it does its work, but they do not help to 
build up the body ; that is the work of the proteids, 
and to some extent the proteids may also be used 
as fuel. 



CHAPTER IX 
COOKING 

Raw Meats. — Raw meat is eaten by a large num- 
ber of people. It is said that persons soon become 
fond of it, but it is not so easily digested as cooked 
meat, even when smoked or dried. 

Cooking is Necessary. — We are told that it is im- 
possible to find a race of men so uncivilized that they 
do not cook a part of their food. We are educated 
to believe that it is absolutely necessary to cook 
some kinds of food. Cooking is important because 
it brings out flavors that are agreeable, and thus 
pleases the taste and increases the appetite. It also 
either softens the article, or aids in dividing it into 
small particles, and thus promotes digestion. Im- 
proper cooking, however, can make the purest and 
best articles of food indigestible and harmful even 
to the healthiest stomach. 

Broiling. — A tender piece of beefsteak, carefully 
broiled, contains a great deal of nourishment, and is 
easily digested. Broiling is the best way to cook 
meats ; next to this, roasting, and then boiling. 

Boiling. — In cooking meats we should remember 
that the natural juices ought to be retained in them 



COOKING 



57 



as much as is possible. This can be done by mak- 
ing the meat very hot at first, in order that it may 
be hardened on the outside, thus forming a crust 
through which the juices cannot escape. Therefore 
all meats that are to be boiled should be put into 





i 








isaf 1 




K" 


-^m 

Wm[' jb 


5L-£* fcV '^Xfim' 


i ^*^~^^^MW^ 




I 


mi >?-' JJ^^m 






w - 



First Lessons in the Art of Cooking 

water that is boiling, and roasts should be placed in 
an oven that is very hot. 

Frying. — Frying makes meat hard, and difficult 
to digest. If frying is to be done at all, the fat 
should be boiling hot before the food is put into it. 
Then an outer crust is formed at once on the out- 
side of the food, and the oil does not pass into it 
so freely. 



58 A HEALTHY BODY 

Making Soups. — When it is desired to make soups 
or beef-tea, the juices of the meat and not its fiber 
are required, hence the meat should be cut in small 
pieces and placed in cold water, and the water 
allowed gradually to come to the boiling point. 
Mutton broth prepared in this way is very nutri- 
tious and easily digested. 

Eggs. — Eggs are cooked in many ways. For the 
most delicate stomach there can be nothing better 
than a fresh egg broken into boiling water and 
cooked just enough to set the albumen, or white. 
A soft-boiled egg is also very nourishing and easily 
digested. Hard-boiled eggs should be eaten only 
by those who have strong powers of digestion. 

Vegetables. — Vegetables should be thoroughly 
cooked. As a rule, they are not cooked enough. 
The practice of frying them does not give a whole- 
some food. Some vegetables, as lettuce and rad- 
ishes, are eaten without cooking. If taken in mod- 
erate quantity, they serve as a relish, to please the 
taste. 

The Starchy Foods. — The various starchy foods, 
such as rice, and oatmeal, should be boiled a long 
time ; without long cooking they cannot be properly 
acted upon by the digestive juices. 

New Bread. — : Newly baked bread is difficult to 
digest, because it is likely to form a soft, pasty 
mass in the mouth, and when it reaches the stom- 
ach it is a solid lump into which the digestive 



COOKING 59 

juices cannot easily enter. Light, sweet bread is 
always acceptable to the taste, and is highly nu- 
tritious. 

Pies and Cakes. — Pies and rich cakes are not 
wholesome foods for delicate stomachs, and should 
be eaten only in moderate quantities by any one. 
The pie crust contains too much fat, lard or but- 
ter, and the cakes have too much sugar and butter 
in them to make proper foods. They should never 
be taken in large quantities. 

What Food Shall we Eat? — No rule can be given 
either for the kind or the quantity of food we should 
eat. We must learn what foods are wholesome, and 
how they can be spoiled by improper cooking ; then 
each one must decide for himself what he will eat. 
It can be given as a rule that a proper amount of 
meat, together with cereals, vegetables, and fruits, is 
the best form of diet for most people. 

Plenty of Food for Children. — Children should have 
plenty of good food. They take much exercise, and 
their bodies are growing rapidly. For these reasons 
Nature gives them a hearty appetite, and she expects 
itto be satisfied with a good supply of- wholesome food. 

General Suggestions. — Do your share toward pre- 
venting any waste of food. Do not have more food 
served to you than you are quite sure you can eat. 
If you aid in clearing off the table, save all the food 
you possibly can. To waste food is not only ex- 
pensive, but it is wrong as well. 



60 A HEALTHY BODY 

There are other things connected with the table 
and table manners which may seem trivial to you, 
and yet, when taken together, they mean much. We 
will mention a few; you can add others. Go to the 
table with clean face and hands, with the clothes 
neatly brushed, and w T ith the hair in proper order. 
Eat slowly, keep the lips closed while chewing the 
food; do not drink when food is in the mouth; do 
not make a noise when eating soup ; be cheerful 
and pleasant to all. 

If you have a part in preparing the food for the 
table, we need hardly tell you that your dress 
should be neat and tidy, and your hands absolutely 
clean. 

Is Alcohol a Food? — We have seen that the pur- 
pose of food is to furnish material for the growth of 
the body, or the repair of its w T aste, and to enable 
it to keep up its warmth and working power with- 
out injuring it. A substance whose nature it is to 
work contrary to these purposes has no place in 
the list of foods suitable for the normal body. 

We have also seen that food is oxidized or burned 
in the body. The question has arisen in recent years 
as to whether alcohol should be called a food, because 
it can be oxidized in the body, in small quantities. 
The test, of course, is whether it can serve the pur- 
poses for which we take food. Tried by each of 
these purposes we find that alcohol contains nothing 
that the body can use for growth or repair, and that 



COOKING 61 

with it the body is less able to work and keep warm 
than without it. We find also that there are other 
poisonous materials which the body gets rid of by 
oxidizing them. The fact that alcohol is oxidized 
in the body does not class it as a food in the ordi- 
nary sense. 

Some kinds of alcoholic drinks tend to make the 
body gain fat; but to gain fat does not always 
mean that the person is gaining in health or 
strength, or that he is properly nourished. 

"When the tissues beneath the skin become filled 
with fat, they are made larger, therefore they push 
the skin outward. This removes any wrinkles in 
the skin, making the face look plump and round. 
If this change were only in the skin, or in the parts 
just beneath the skin, probably no great damage 
would take place. But many of the most important 
organs in the body undergo a similar change. An 
extra amount of fat is formed in the muscles, caus- 
ing them to become soft and flabby. Even the 
heart may be affected in this way, causing what the 
doctors call a " fatty heart. 1 ' Hence the fact that 
beer or other alcoholic drink sometimes makes the 
drinker fat is no evidence that it is a food. 

Moreover, as we have seen, it is the nature of a 
true food to nourish the body without injuring it ; 
but it is the nature of alcohol to injure the body, 
hence alcohol is not a food. 



CHAPTER X 
DIGESTION 

We eat and drink because we hunger and thirst, 
and if our bodies are in a healthy condition, hunger 
and thirst may be taken as safe guides as to the 
amount of food and drink we need. 

Thirst. — Our throats seem to tell us when we are 
thirsty ; but thirst is a call of the whole system f or 
liquids, and is not confined to any one part. 

Hunger. — The sensation of hunger is generally 
said to be in the stomach ; but it is not confined to 
any one place ; it is a call of the whole system for 
food. 

Why is Food Necessary ? — Our bodies are constant- 
ly wearing out, and for this reason alone we should 
perish if we did not renew them with fresh supplies 
of food. Then, too, in growing persons new mate- 
rial must be supplied for still another purpose, — 
to make new tissues, so that the body may properly 
increase in size. 

A healthy body must not only have new material, 
but must also get rid of the old, worn-out material. 
If our bodies should fail to do this, death would 
speedily follow, The skin, lungs, kidneys, and other 



DIGESTION 



63 




organs, cany off this poisonous, worn-out material, 
and thus the body is kept in a healthy condition. 

Digestion. — Digestion is a process taking place in 
the stomach and intestines, by which food is prepared 
to be absorbed into the blood, and to supply the 
needs of the body. The food we take must be dis- 
solved and changed before it can be absorbed, or 
taken up, by the blood vessels and carried in them 
to all parts of 
the body. 

We may 
speak of the 
stomach as the 
first organ of 
digestion, but 
we must not 
forget that some important preparatory work is done 
in the mouth, before the food reaches the stomach. 
Two things happen in the mouth — the food is broken 
up, and it is mixed with saliva. 

Mastication. — The first act of digestion may there- 
fore be called mastication, or chewing. As soon as 
Nature thinks we are old enough to" take solid food, 
she furnishes us with teeth to chew it. The first 
teeth, called "milk teeth," appear about the sixth 
or seventh month, and continue to appear, one after 
another, for about three years. There are twenty of 
them. They do not stay long. The second set, or 
" permanent teeth," begin to appear about the fifth 



Fig. 19. — This figure shows some of the perma- 
nent teeth forming below the first or milk teeth. 



64 



A HEALTHY BODY 




or sixth year. These come one by one until the 
child is twelve or thirteen years of age, when all 
will be present except the wisdom teeth, which 
usually do not appear until the twentieth or twenty- 
fifth year. In Fig. 19, the position of some of the 
second, or permanent, teeth is shown. Forming in 
the jaw just beneath the others these gradually rise 

up to take the 
place of the milk 
teeth. There are 
thirty-two of these 
permanent teeth, 
and if they are 
allowed to decay, 
no other teeth will 
come to take their 
places. 

Importance of the 
Teeth.— The teeth 



Fig. 20.— Three teeth 
opened to show the 
hollow space inside where the nerves and 
blood vessels are. Surrounding the top of 
each tooth is the enamel. The two teeth 
to the left are but little larger than nat- 
ural; the one to the right is more highly 
magnified. are yer ^ necessai y 

to digestion. They break up the food into fine 
particles, so that it may be thoroughly mixed with 
the saliva. A beautiful set of teeth adds much to 
the personal appearance, but a set of dirty and 
decayed teeth is very repulsive. We must not neg- 
lect our teeth in any way if we wish to preserve 
them, and escape the pains of toothache. The teeth 
should not be picked with a pin or with any hard 
substance; use instead a quill or a wood toothpick, 




DIGESTION 65 

and run silk floss between the teeth that are set close 
together. Nuts should never be cracked between 
them. The teeth should be thoroughly cleaned at 
least once each day. It would be better to clean 
them after each meal, and at bed time. Use a small 
soft brush at least once each day, and should a 
decayed place appear, consult a dentist even if the 
tooth does not ache. 

The Teeth Vary in Shape. — Our teeth are of vari- 
ous shapes, because they have different kinds of 
work to perform. The front ones are sharp for cut- 
ting, hence are called incisors; while the back ones are 
large and uneven for grinding, and are called molars. 

The Inside of the Teeth. — By breaking open any 
tooth an opening will be found within it, as pictured 
in Fig. 20. In the living body this opening is filled 
with nerves and blood vessels, and these make the 
pulp of the tooth. 

Decay of Teeth. — The decay of teeth is now 
known to be due to the action of germs. The 
growth of these germs is aided by the moisture and 
warmth of the mouth, and also by the presence of 
particles of food. To prevent decay, the teeth 
should be given careful attention and kept so clean 
that there may not be an opportunity for these 
germs to perform their injurious work. The popular 
belief that eating top freely of candy is likely to 
cause the teeth to decay is based upon the fact that 
sugar is favorable to the growth of many kinds of 



66 A HEALTHY BODY 

germs ; hence it is especially unwise to eat candy 
just before retiring and thus allow the sweet to 
remain in the mouth for some time. 

Tooth Ache. — When a tooth aches it is nearly 
always because some part of it is decayed. A den- 
tist should be very promptly consulted in order that 
even the smallest cavity may be filled and further 
progress of the decay prevented. The best pre- 
ventive of toothache is to keep the teeth perfectly 
clean. 

A Sweet Breath. — Decayed teeth always give a 
bad odor to the breath. For this reason, if for no 
other, the use of the tooth brush should be frequent. 
Even when the teeth are not decayed, but are 
merely allowed to go without proper cleaning, the 
breath is tainted. Bad breath may also be caused 
by a disordered stomach, or by some disturbance of 
the general health ; in case it continues to be offen- 
sive, a physician should be consulted. 

The Saliva. — There is a constant flow of a liquid 
into the mouth. It is called the saliva; When 
food is taken into the mouth, the flow is greatly 
increased. The saliva comes from glands near the 
tongue, and also from two large glands, one just in 
front of each ear. Sometimes these glands become 
inflamed and swollen, giving rise to a disease known 
as the " mumps," 

Promiscuous Spitting. — Spitting in public places is 
not only an exhibition of bad manners, but it may 



DIGESTION 67 

prove very dangerous to many people. The secre- 
tions thus deposited easily become dried and crushed 
to a powder, which floats readily in the dust of the 
atmosphere. This powder may contain the germs 
of diphtheria, pneumonia, or consumption, and if 
inhaled by one in good health may be the cause of 
producing one of these diseases. Spitting in public 
places is now forbidden by law in nearly all of the 
larger cities, and offenders are liable either to fine or 
to imprisonment, or, in certain cases, to both. 

The Mouth and the Voice. — All the parts about the 
mouth, as the tongue, the teeth, the palate, should 
be in a healthy and normal condition ; otherwise we 
cannot speak correctly or read aloud well. Those 
who speak in public need to take special care in 
this direction. The peculiar and undesirable nasal 
tone which some persons have may be due merely 
to carelessness or to unfortunate imitation of others. 
Often, however, it is caused by an unnatural condi- 
tion of the mouth, nose, or throat — some trouble that 
a physician might correct by proper treatment. 
Sometimes the lower surface of the end of the tongue 
is attached too closely to the tissues beneath. We 
say that such persons are " tongue-tied " ; they can- 
not protrude the end of the tongue well from the 
mouth, and often have difficulty in pronouncing the 
letter ft s" distinctly. Enlarged tonsils will also 
interfere with speech. Many of these imperfections 
are easily corrected- 



CHAPTER XI 



DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH 

The Stomach. — By the act of swallowing, the food 
passes from the mouth down a tube in the throat 
called the " oesophagus," into the stomach. The 

stomach of an adult is 
nearly a foot in length, 
and three or four inches 
in diameter. It has a 
firm outer wall of invol- 
untary muscle, while the 
inside consists of a del- 
icate membrane called the 

Fig. 21. — A cross section of a small t i • i 

portion of the walls of the stom- mucous membrane which 

ach, slightly magnified, showing is arranged ill folds, Or 
how the glands open into it, as at 1. wrinkleg . When the 

stomach is well filled, these folds spread out and 
disappear. 

Glands of the Stomach. — In the mucous membrane 
are glands so very minute that they cannot be seen 
without a microscope. Fig. 21 shows how a cross 
section of this membrane looks when examined with 
a magnifying glass. The inside of the stomach is 
at the top of the figure, and the outer wall of muscle 




DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH 



69 



is at the bottom. Nine of these glands are seen in 
Fig. 21, all opening on the inside of the stomach. 
A careful examination of these glands, with the 
aid of the microscope, shows, Fig. 22, that they 
are composed of cells of different shapes and sizes. 
Certain cells secrete, or manufacture, a particular part 
of the digestive juice, while others 
do other work. 

The Gastric Juice. — The round 
bodies, or cells, seen in these glands 
make a juice, called the gastric juice. 
Just as soon as food reaches the 
stomach these cells begin to pour 
out this juice, which is to change 
much of the food. At the same 
time the walls of the stomach begin 
to move, contracting and relaxing, 
and thus mixing the food thor- 
oughly with the juice. The grayish 
fluid thus formed from the food 
is called chyme. 

The gastric juice changes certain of our foods so 
that they can be taken up by tiny blood vessels 
and, in due time, carried to all parts of the body. 
Not all the foods we take are digested in the 
stomach by this juice ; some of them pass out of 
the stomach unchanged, and are digested in the in- 
testines. The oily or fatty foods, and all the starchy 
foods that are not changed in the mouth by the 




Fig. 22.— One of the 
glands of the 
stomach, as seen 
with a microscope.- 
It opens into the 
stomach at 1. 



A HEALTHY BODY 



action of the saliva, are digested in the intestine; 
such foods as lean meats and eggs (proteids) are 
chiefly digested in the stomach. The fact that 
solid meats and some other foods can be digested in 
the stomach is largely due to the presence of two 
substances in the gastric juice, pepsin and an acid. 

The Time Required for Digestion. — A few hours 
after food has been taken, the stomach is again empty. 
The time required for the stomach to complete its 
work depends upon the kind and the amount of 
food, the liquids that are taken during the meal, the 
health of the person, and other conditions. 

The following table shows the time required for 
the digestion of different foods : 

More Difficult h - m. 

Potatoes, boiled . . . 3.30 

Oysters, fried .... 3.30 

Eggs, hard boiled . . . 3.30 

Pork, broiled .... 3.30 

Veal, roasted 3.30 

Veal, fried 4.00 

Beef, fried 4.00 

Cheese l . . 4.00 

Cabbage, boiled . . . 4.30 

Duck, wild, roasted . . 4.30 

Pork, fried 4.30 

Pork, roasted . . . . 5.15 



Easy of Digestion 


h. m. 


Rice, boiled 1.00 


Apples, sweet, raw 






1.30 


Milk .... 






2.00 


Cabbage, raw . 






2.00 


Oysters, raw 






2.30 


Potatoes, baked 






2.30 


Chicken, boiled 






2.45 


Eggs, soft boiled 






3.00 


Custard, baked . 






. 3.00 


Beef, broiled . . 






3.00 


Beef, roasted . . 






3.00 


Mutton, roasted . 






3.15 



Eat Slowly. — One of the most frequent causes of 
trouble with the stomach is too rapid eating. The 
solid foods should be thoroughly chewed, and all 
food well mixed with the saliva, because the saliva 



DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH 71 

has the power of changing the starch of our food 
into a kind of sugar. As all starch must be thus 
changed before it can be taken up by the blood- 
vessels, it follows that the action of this fluid is 
important. The food is in the mouth so short a 
time that only a part of the starch is changed into 
sugar there, the rest being changed at a later period, 
when it passes into the intestines. Still, it is 
important that the saliva should be given a chance 
to do its part in bringing about this change. 

The gastric juice will not dissolve, or digest, the 
solid foods in the proper time if the pieces are too 
large when swallowed. We should eat slowly, not 
only because it is good manners, but also because 
the saliva is thus mixed with the food, and further 
because there is then time for the gastric juice to be 
formed, and to be thoroughly mixed with the food 
as that is swallowed. 

Liquids at Meal-time. — If we made a habit of 
drinking too freely of iced water, or cold water, 
during a meal, digestion would be interfered with, 
and some form of stomach trouble would be likely 
to follow. 



CHAPTER XII 



DIGESTION IN THE INTESTINE 




Fig. 23.— (1) The oesophagus; (2) the 
stomach ; (3) the lower opening of the 
stomach; (4) the gall bladder; (5) the 
duct carrying bile to the intestine; (6) 
the duct from the pancreas; (7) the 
small intestine; (8) the large intestine. 



The process of 
digestion is not 
completed in the 
stomach. After the 
stomach has done its 
work, the lower 
opening, shown in 
Fig. 23 at (3), re- 
laxes, and that part 
of the food, or chyme, 
that has not been 
fully digested passes 
into the small intes- 
tine to undergo a 
final change. 

Within a few 
inches of the stom- 
ach there are poured 
into the intestine the 
juices formed by the 
liver and pancreas. 
These juices change 
the chyme into a 



DIGESTION IN THE INTESTINE 73 

milky fluid called chyle. Fig. 23 shows the situation 
of the ducts that convey these juices. 

The Liver. —The liver is a large organ lying prin- 
cipally in the right side of the body, just under the 
lower ribs, as in Fig. 24. In the adult this organ 
weighs between three and four pound?. 

The Bile. — The fluid secreted by the liver is called 
bile. The liver is constantly forming bile, although 
there are times when an increased quantity of it is 
poured into the intestine. The bile may pass 
directly from the liver into the intestine, or it 
may first pass into the gall-bladder, and from there 
into the intestine, the gall-bladder acting simply as 
a reservoir for the bile. The duct from the liver 
unites with the duct that comes from the pancreas, 
and both terminate as one duct, which opens into 
the intestine. 

About two and one half pints of bile are se- 
creted each day. If the liver fails altogether to 
secrete this substance, sickness and death follow. 
If enough is not secreted, then the whole body is 
affected, and sickness folloAvs. When the passage 
from the liver to the intestine is stopped up in any 
way, then the bile is taken up by the blood vessels, 
and carried to all parts of the body, making the 
skin yellow. The person thus affected becomes very 
ill, and we say that he has jaundice. 

The Liver Sugar. — AVe remember that all starchy 
foods are changed into a kind of sugar before they 



74 



A HEALTHY BODY 



are absorbed ; therefore all the starchy foods and 
all the sugar we eat are absorbed into the body as 
so much sugar. This sugar is carried directly to 

the liver. The liver 
makes certain 
changes in the 
sugar which it stores 
up in its cells 
until some time be- 
tween meals, when 
it gives the sugar 
out again to the 
body. Thus the 
liver acts as a, great 
storehouse; takes 
some of the digested 
food when there is 

Fig. 24 shows the location of the prin- -i , -P "+ A 

cipal organs of the trunk: (1) the dia- P lent y 01 1Z > an ^ 

phragm, the irregular curved muscle stores it Up Until 

which divides the trunk into two large oiinli time as the 
cavities, — the thoracic cavity above, and 

the abdominal cavity, below; (2) the body needs it, and 

breast-bone, on each side of which are the then STVeS it Out as 

ribs; (3) the liver, beneath the diaphragm -i 

in the right side of the body (left side of S0 mucn SUgar. 

Figure) ; (4) the stomach ; (5) the spleen ; The Pancreas. — 

(6) the kidneys. Behind the lower 

part of the stomach is the pancreas. This is a slender 
organ, about six inches in length, which secretes a 
juice called the pancreatic juice. The duct that 
carries this juice to the intestine unites, as already 




DIGESTION IN THE INTESTINE 70 

stated, with the one from the liver before entering 
the intestine. Behind the stomach, on the left side 
of the body, is the spleen. 

The pancreatic juice is very important in diges- 
tion, as it changes the starchy foods into sugar, and 
thus completes the work begun by the saliva. This 
juice will also digest all foods that the gastric juice 
can digest. It is the only juice that digests fats. 

Glands of the Intestine. — There are glands in the 
walls of the small intestine that secrete a juice 
which aids in the digestion of foods, especially the 
starches and fats. 

How many Fluids? — We have learned that there 
are five fluids used in digesting the food. First, 
the saliva ; second the gastric juice ; third, the 
bile ; fourth the pancreatic juice ; and fifth, the 
intestinal juice. Twenty pounds of these juices are 
probably secreted every twenty-four hours. 

To Assist Digestion. — Eat slowly. Eat at regular 
hours. Eat mild fruit before meals. Chew the 
food thoroughly. Be cheerful at the table. Do 
not eat between meals. Do not eat just before 
going to bed. Do not wash down food with too 
mucli drink. 

The Large Intestine.— The parts of the food that 
are not digestible, and those that have not been 
digested, pass from the small into the large intestine. 
These waste materials should be regularly expelled 
from the large intestine at least once every day. 



CHAPTER XIII 

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE DIGESTIVE 
ORGANS 

Pure alcohol is not ordinarily taken into the 
stomach ; it would have the most serious effects at 
once, if taken undiluted. Alcohol is generally used 
in the form of wine, whiskey, beer, or other liquors, 
and it is the effects of these that should be under- 
stood. The strongest liquors, such as brandy, con- 
sist of one half alcohol, while the weaker liquors, 
such as beer, contain about one tablespoonful of 
alcohol to a large tumblerful. 

The first effect of alcoholic beverages on the 
mucous membrane of the stomach is to cause an 
increased flow of blood to it. A most important 
result follows this. The glands of the stomach 
secrete an extra amount of gastric juice. This is 
so important an effect that if we were to stop our 
investigation here, we should be justified in believ- 
ing these liquors to be of benefit, causing a more 
abundant flow of the gastric juice. But on further 
investigation we find that the stomach needs more 
time to digest food, when alcoholic liquors are 
taken with it, than when only water is drunk. This 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS 77 

has been the result of many experiments, and no 
experiments on the other hand have shown that 
alcoholic drinks can be depended upon to hasten or 
to aid digestion. 

The contiuued use of alcoholic drinks is liable to 
give rise to dyspepsia, or other forms of stomach 
trouble. Indeed, it may cause a disease known as 
gastric catarrh, which is an inflammation of the 
stomach. This inn animation makes heat, and this 
heat gives rise to a thirst and to a peculiar faint or 
sickening feeling, to quench which more liquor is used. 
For a short time this deadens the feeling, and the 
man thinks his drink has helped him. But as the 
stomach gets more inflamed it demands more liquor, 
and the frequency and quantity are increased, until 
an appetite is formed. Now the body is constantly 
craving more fluid to quiet the disturbed stomach 
and other organs. The man who thus uses alcoholic 
drinks is a sick man, and should be under the care 
of a physician, that his diseased body may be 
restored to health. 

The changes and effects we have described may 
come from the continued use of alcohol in amounts 
that are considered quite moderate. When large 
doses are taken within a comparatively short time, 
several results may follow. A very common result 
is acute inflammation of the stomach. The effects 
of this acute attack may disappear after a few days, 
provided no more alcohol be taken. 



78 A HEALTHY BODY 

The prolonged use of alcoholic liquors is liable to 
cause changes in the structure of the stomach. The 
blood vessels may become permanently enlarged, 
the glands reduced in size, and the gastric juice 
weakened and unable to do its work. As a result, 
there is constant and distressing pain in the stomach, 
and loss of strength. This condition of things may 
go still, further, until the stomach will not retain 
any food given it, and a painful and fatal illness 
results. 

When we know that one glass of liquor may cre- 
ate a desire for another, and when Ave understand to 
what all this may lead, w<? are certainly prepared to 
agree that the best w r ay to deal with such a drug is 
to let it alone. 

The Effect on the Liver. — It is probable that 
some of the alcohol taken into the stomach is there 
absorbed, the rest passes out and is absorbed from 
the intestines. When it is taken up by the blood 
vessels of the stomach, the first organ to which it 
is carried is the liver. Here it is capable of doing 
much damage. The liver, like all other organs, is 
made up of cells. These cells should have but very 
little, if any, fat in them. If they are clogged 
with fat, they can no longer either secrete bile, 
or store up sugar for use in the body. But alco- 
holic drinks often cause the liver, first, to be- 
come large and fat, and afterward, smaller and 
harder than in health. This small hard liver is so 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE DIGESTIVE OKGANS 79 

characteristic that it has been given a distinct name 
by medical men, " the drunkard's liver." Such a 
change in the structure of the liver must, sooner or 
later, bring about a general disorder of the whole 
system. The liver may be made to suffer in other 
ways, as well ; but these two results are sufficient to 
show the ill effects of this drug, — first, an enlarge- 
ment and fatty change, and second, after prolonged 
use, a shrinking and hardening of its structure. 

Effects of Tobacco on Digestion. — The effects of to- 
bacco on digestion are largely of a secondary nature. 
It first affects the digestion of those who chew, 
because the salivary glands are so continuously 
over-worked that when the saliva is most needed, at 
meal time, only a scanty amount is furnished. Its 
more severe effects are shown through the nervous 
system, causing a particular kind of indigestion, 
called nervous dyspepsia. 

No Use for Tobacco. — While the evil effects of 
tobacco do not show alike in all its users, yet it is 
certainly true that in very many cases its habitual 
use does serious harm. To the growing boy, or the 
rapidly developing young man, tobacco is plainly 
injurious. The younger the person who uses it, the 
more harmful it is. With many young men it 
appears to dull their interest in others, and leads to 
selfishness. We see young men about us, puffing 
away at their cigars or cigarettes, indifferent or 
thoughtless as to the comfort of those about them 



80 A HEALTHY BODY 

wlio do not like tobacco. No one who is possessed of 
the real spirit of kindness, which is the distinguish- 
ing mark of a gentleman, will gratify his own 
desires at the cost of the comfort of others. Every- 
body has a right to breathe pure air. The smoker 
who fills the air that others must breathe with the 
fumes of tobacco, is trespassing upon the rights of 
others. 

Opium. — This drug will completely stop diges- 
tion. It takes away the appetite, checks the flow of 
the gastric juice, and seriously affects the whole 
digestive apparatus. 

Tea and Coffee. — When taken very strong and in 
large quantities, these beverages are quite sure to 
interfere with digestion. 



CHAPTER XIV 
ABSORPTION 

Preparation of Food for Absorption. — In the pre- 
vious chapters we have traced the principal proc- 
esses of digestion. We have learned that the 
saliva changes some of the starchy foods into sugar; 
that the gastric juice digests lean meats, eggs, etc. 
We have found that the pancreatic juice digests 
the fats, changes the undigested starches into sugar, 
and finishes the work of the stomach; and that the 
bile flows into the intestine to give its aid. 

This work is done in order that the foods rnay 
be changed to a form in which they can be ab- 
sorbed. Absorption takes place principally in the 
small intestine, although there is absorption from 
the stomach, and to a lesser extent from the large 
intestine. The latter is, however, principally a 
temporary storehouse for the waste materials of di- 
gestion, soon to be removed from the body. 

Absorption from the Stomach. — The water that is 
taken into the system is not absorbed from the 
stomach, but passes, after a short time, into the in- 
testines. In the stomach there is some absorption 
of sugars and of the changed proteids in the food. 

Absorption from the Small Intestine,— Hanging down 



82 



A HEALTHY BODY 



from the inner walls of the small intestine are mi- 
nute projections, like fingers ; these are called villi. 
There are several millions of them in the body. 

Fig. 25, b, shows a cross section of the small in- 
testine, with a number of these •little fingers, or villi, 
hanging into the central cavity. It also shows the 
two kinds of vessels. Let us place one of these villi 




Fig. 25. — (b) a cross section of the small intestine, (a) one of the villi 
of b, highly magnified; (1) the lacteals, or lymphatics; (2) the blood 
vessels; (8) the villi. 

under the microscope. We now see that a layer of 
cells covers its outside, while within, it consists al- 
most entirely of the two kinds of vessels. Directly 
in the center is the lacteal, or lymph vessel. There 
is also a large number of minute blood vessels. 
What are these villi for? What is the single lacteal 
for ? Of what use are so many little blood vessels ? 
As the fine rootlets of a plant soak up nourishment 
from the ground, so these villi take up digested food. 



ABSORPTION 83 

The digested food soaks through the thin walls of 
the villi as water soaks through a cloth. Once in 
these little vessels, the absorbed food flows into 
larger vessels, and these soon unite together in one 
or two still larger vessels. 

The work of the lacteals, in the villi, is largely to 
take up the digested fats, while the blood vessels 
take up principally the other digested foods. 

The Portal Vein. — The blood vessels of the villi 
soon unite with each other and with those of the 
stomach to make a large vein, called the portal vein. 
Its duty is to carry the digested foods to the liver. 
From this organ they will be conveyed by a large 
vein to the heart. Thus the blood, with its 
digested foods, reaches the right side of the heart, 
and from the heart goes to all parts of the body. 

The Thoracic Duct. — The lacteals, or lymphatics, 
that are in the center of the villi soon unite to make 
a large vessel, called the thoracic duct. This duct 
is as large as an ordinary slate pencil, and it runs 
up in front of the spinal column, emptying into the 
large vein just beneath the left collar bone, and this 
vein also goes directly to the right side of the heart. 

The Lymph Corpuscles. — If some of the liquid in 
the thoracic duct be examined with the microscope, 
there will be found a vast number of minute bodies 
called lymph corpuscles. When these get into the 
blood they are called white blood corpuscles, and 
we shall learn more about them later. 



84 A HEALTHY BODY 

How the Digested Foods Enter the Circulation. — 

Let us follow, for example, the course of broiled 
steak. First, the steak is thoroughly chewed, or 
masticated ; second, it is swallowed ; third, it is 
digested by the gastric juice ; fourth, it is forced 
into the intestine by the contraction of the stomach, 
and acted on there by the pancreatic juice; fifth, it 
is absorbed from the intestine, principally by the 
blood vessels of the villi ; sixth, it is carried by these 
vessels into the portal vein; seventh, it is carried by 
the portal vein into the liver ; eighth, it passes out 
of the liver through large veins to the heart. 

Starchy foods are changed into sugar by the saliva 
and the pancreatic juices ; they reach the liver 
through the same channels as the digested meat. 

Fatty foods are first masticated, if necessary; 
second, they are swallowed ; third, they pass out of 
the stomach unchanged ; fourth, in the intestine they 
are mixed with the bile and the pancreatic juices, 
and so changed that they can be absorbed; fifth, 
they are absorbed mainly by the lacteal s ; sixth, the 
lacteals carry them to the thoracic duct; seventh, 
they pass up this duct and empty into the large 
vein which carries them directly to the heart. 

When we are thinking of the course of the 
digested foods, we must remember that portions of 
our food are not digested, but pass to that store- 
house for waste, the large intestine and from there 
pass out of the body. 



CHAPTER XV 
THE BLOOD 

Amount of Blood in the Body. — About one twelfth 
of the weight of the body is composed of blood. 
When the skin is cut, blood flows from the wound, 
though there are certain portions of the body in 
which we cannot find blood ; namely, the hard parts 
of the teeth, the hair, the nails, the outer layer of the 
skin, some parts of the eye, and most of the carti- 
lages. These are nourished by fluids which soak 
through from the blood vessels. 

Composition of Blood. — Blood appears to the un- 
aided sight like a simple, red liquid ; but the micro- 
scope shows that there are two parts; first, a watery 
fluid, called the plasma, and second, some minute 
bodies, known as the blood corpuscles. The liquid 
plasma, which is not at all red, looks much like 
water, but we know there are many important 
substances dissolved in it which we cannot see and 
which can be found only by the chemist. The 
blood corpuscles are of two kinds, white and red, 
and may be seen and studied with a powerful micro- 
scope. It is the vast number of the red corpuscles 
in the blood that makes it look like a red fluid. 



86 



A HEALTHY BODY 



White Corpuscles. — A white corpuscle, as its name 
tells us, is without color. When persons become 
weak and pale, the microscope shows that their 
blood has in it too many of the white corpuscles, 
and not enough of the red. There ought to be only 
one white corpuscle to about five hundred red. 

Red Corpuscles. — The red corpuscles of man are 
circular bodies that are slightly hollowed towards 
l 2 








Fig. 26. — (1) Frog's blood; (2) Human blood. (A) the white corpuscles; 
(B) the red corpuscles. (C) edge of corpuscle showing hollow sides. 

the center. In a great many of the higher animals 
they are of this same shape, but in birds, fishes, 
snakes, and some other animals, they are oval. 
Fig. 26 shows the oval corpuscles of frog's blood, 
"and the circular ones of human blood. One red 
corpuscle of man's blood is represented as seen on 
the edge, which shows how it is hollowed towards 
the center. These corpuscles are very small. If 
placed side by side in a straight line, it would take 
over three thousand of them to cover a single inch 
in length. 



THE BLOOD 87 

The Number of Red Corpuscles. — It is impossible 
for us to realize how many red corpuscles there are 
in the body ; in a small drop of blood there are as 
many as five million. 

Their Use in the Body. — The red corpuscles may 
be compared to little circular boats floating in the 
water of the blood. They go to the lungs, where 
they get very near the air, and take from it all the 
oxygen they can carry. Then they hasten away to 
some distant part of the body where some tissue 
needs oxygen. To such tissue the corpuscles give up 
their oxygen ; then they hasten back to the lungs for 
another load. For this reason, the red corpuscles 
are called oxygen carriers. 

Arterial Blood. — When these corpuscles have a 
great deal of oxygen in them, as they have when 
leaving the lungs, they are bright in color, and they 
make the whole blood appear bright scarlet. This 
bright-colored blood is found in the arteries, hence 
it is called arterial blood. 

There is, however, one place where this bright 
blood is found in the veins ; namely, in those that 
carry the blood from the lungs to the left side of the 
heart. They are called the pulmonary veins. 

Venous Blood. — After the corpuscles have given up 
their oxygen to the tissues, they become a darker red, 
and as a result, the whole blood looks darker. Dark 
blood is found in the veins, with one exception, 
namely, in the case of the pulmonary artery that 



88 A HEALTHY BODY 

carries blood from the right side of the heart to the 
lungs. We say that the arteries contain arterial 
blood, and the veins venous blood; but to this rule 
there are the two exceptions we have just given, — 
the pulmonary artery and the pulmonary veins. 

What We Breathe. — The air we breathe consists 
principally of two gases, — oxygen and nitrogen. 
Carbon dioxide is found only in very small quan- 
tities in " pure air." 

All parts of the body need oxygen. If we did 
not have it we should die in a few moments. It is 
necessary that we should have it in large quantities ; 
for this reason we are more healthy if we always 
breathe fresh and pure air. Nitrogen serves only 
to dilute the oxygen, for we could not live in an 
atmosphere of pure oxygen. As the tissues take up 
the oxygen from the blood, they give back to it 
small quantities of carbon dioxide, which is removed 
from the body by means of the lungs. 

Differences between Arterial and Venous Blood. — 
The principal differences between arterial and venous 
blood are these : 

Arterial blood has more oxygen than has venous 
blood. 

Venous blood has more carbon dioxide than has 
arterial blood. 

Arterial blood parts with its oxygen in the capil- 
laries, about which we shall learn in the next 
chapter. 



THE BLOOD 89 

Venous blood parts with its carbon dioxide in 
the lungs. 

Arterial blood is of a bright scarlet color. 

Venous blood is of a darker red color, shading 
toward purple. 

The Clotting of Blood. — After blood is drawn from 
a blood vessel and has stood for a short time, it 
thickens into a jelly-like mass. This is called the 
clotting, or coagulation, of the blood. Blood does 
not clot while it is in the blood vessels, unless 
there is some disease. It is because the blood clots 
that we do not bleed to death when we cut through 
the skin, or in any way cause the blood to flow. The 
little clot that is formed at the opening of the blood 
vessel closes it and the flow ceases. If the blood 
flows slowly it will clot more easily. So when we 
are wounded in any way, we should help the blood 
to clot by checking its flow for a short time. This 
may be done by pressing on the wounded spot, and 
by keeping the part very quiet, so that after the 
clot has formed it will not be disturbed. 

When One is Injured. — When one is injured we 
can tell whether the blood is from an artery or a 
vein by the way it flows. If it comes from an artery, 
it flows in jerks ; we say the blood spurts. If it 
comes from a vein, the flow will be in a steady 
stream. It is more dangerous to injure an artery 
than a vein, as the flow from an artery is not so 
easily stopped. 



CHAPTER XVI 
CIRCULATION 

To understand how the blood is carried to all 
parts of the body we must study the heart, the 
arteries, the capillaries, and the veins. 

The Heart. — The heart is a large involuntary 
muscle. It is situated in the chest between the 
two lungs. In shape it is something like a pear, 
with the small end down and to the left. By refer- 
ence to Fig. 24, it will be seen that the heart and 
lungs nearly fill the cavity of the chest, and that 
they are separated from the organs in the abdo- 
men by the thin wall of muscle called the dia- 
phragm. The heart is enclosed in a sac, the lower 
part of which rests on this diaphragm. 

The Position of the Heart. — The heart is not all 
on the left side. If we draw a line down the middle 
of the breast-bone, the heart will extend about three 
inches to the left of the line, and one and a half 
inches to the right. The base, or larger part, is 
up as high as the third rib, and more of the base is 
on the right side than on the left. The point of the 
heart extends well over into the left side : it is 
there we can feel it beat. Figure 24 shows 



CIRCULATION 



91 



that this point is between the fifth and sixth ribs, 
and that the heart is placed obliquely in the chest. 

The Cavities in the Heart. — The heart is divided 
lengthwise, by a firm wall, 
into two parts, so that 
there is no connection 
whatever between the 
two sides. The left side 
always contains arterial 
blood, and the right side 
venous blood. By refer- 
ence to Fi<2f. 27 it will be 
seen that the parts 3 and 
4 together represent the 
two divisions of the 
right side, while the parts 
7 and 8 together represent 
the two divisions of the 

left Side. The wall be- FlG . 27.— The heart, and the larger 
tweeil the tvVO is shown vessels at its base or upper part: 
-.,-,-,,. « -1-, (1) and (2) veins; (3) right auricle; 

by the location of a small (4) right ventricle . (5) pulra01iary 

blood Vessel Seen 011 the artery; (6) pulmonary veins; (7) 

OUtside Of the heart* to left auricl f ; (8 > left ^e^triele; (9) 

aorta with (10) small arteries 

the left of number 8. branching off. 

Notice in the diagram 
(Fig. 28) how the cross partition divides each side 
into two parts. This wall is not a complete one, 
but has openings through it, so that blood 
can pass from (3) to (4) on one side, and from 




92 



A HEALTHY BODY 



(7) to (8) on the other. These openings are pro- 
tected by doors which Nature has provided ; 
these doors are called valves. The firm wall length- 
wise and the cross par- 
titions divide the heart 
into four cavities. The 
two upper cavities are 
called the auricles. 
They are so named be- 
cause they look some- 
what like ears; the word 
auricle means ear. The 
four cavities are as fol- 
lows : the right auricle, 
the right ventricle, the 

Fig. 28.-Diagram illustrating the ] e f t auv [ c \ e an d the left 
flow of blood through the heart: 

(1) and (2) large veins that carry ventricle.' A Cai'etul 
the blood back to the right auricle; study of the diagram, 
(3) right auricle; (4) right ventri- -rv 9R .-,-, i , , 

cle; open valves between them; '" 

(5) pulmonary artery, carrying 
blood to the lungs: notice the open 
valves; (6) pulmonary veins, bring- 
ing blood from the lungs to the 
auricle; (7) left auricle; (8) left 
ventricle; notice the valves; (9) 
the aorta; notice the valves. 




make all this clearer. 

The Contraction of the 
Heart. — Each ventricle 
holds from four to six 
ounces of blood. When 



the heart contracts, it 
makes its cavities smaller, thus driving or pushing 
the blood that is in it out of those cavities, and 
through the large channels which lead from its 
upper part. 



CIRCULATION 93 

The Course of the Blood Through the Heart. — Let 

us follow the circulation of the blood through the 
heart. Notice Fig. 28, and follow the numbers in 
order, also the arrows. Two large veins, (1) and 
(2), carry the blood from the body to the right 
auricle. The right auricle (3) contracts and pushes 
the blood into the right ventricle (4). The right ven- 
tricle contracts and pushes the blood into a large 
vessel, called the pulmonary artery (5). This soon 
divides into two vessels, one going to each lung. 
After passing through the lungs the blood is brought 
by the pulmonary veins (6) to the left auricle (7). 
The left auricle contracts and pushes the blood into 
the left ventricle (8). The left ventricle contracts 
and pushes the blood into a large artery, the 
aorta (9), which carries it to other vessels, Fig. 29. 
Briefly, the circulation follows this course: from 
large veins into right auricle; then through right 
ventricle; then through the lun^s; then to the left 
auricle ; then through left ventricle ; then out to the 
body. 

Unequal Power of Contraction. — The right ventri- 
cle of the heart has to contract with just force 
enough to send the blood to the lungs, which are 
only a short distance away ; but the left ventricle 
has to contract with force enough to send the blood 
to distant parts of the body. Hence the walls of 
the left ventricle are much thicker and stronger than 
those of the right. 



94 



A HEALTHY BODY 



The Valves in the Heart. — By reference to Fig. 28 
some valves will be seen. They are represented as 

doors that can open 
but one way ; hence 
they will not let the 
blood flow in the 
wrong direction. If 
the blood should try 
to pass back, these 
doors would tightly 
close. These valves 
are seen between (3) 
and (4), between (4) 
and (5), between (7) 
and (8), and between 
(8) and (9). 

The General Circula- 
tion. — A study of Fig. 
29 will help those who 
wish to learn the gen- 
eral location of the 
principal arteries. The 
dark lines represent 
-The general plan of the the arteries, carrying 

circulation. 2l n -. -, • xl -,. 

the blood in the direc- 
tion of the arrows, away from the heart. The lighter 
lines represent the veins, carrying the blood to- 
ward the heart. The carotid arteries (1) carry the 
blood to the head. The beat of these arteries can 




CIRCULATION 95 

be felt by placing the fingers on each side of the 
neck. (2) Large arteries beneath the clavicle. 
Each artery extends down the arm, and when it 
reaches the upper arm it is called the brachial. At 
the elbow it divides into two arteries ; one is by the 
side of the radius, hence is called the radial artery; 
the other is by the side of the ulna, hence is called 
the ulnar artery. (3) Arteries of the lungs (L). 

(4) Continuation of the aorta. When this reaches 
the abdomen it is called the abdominal aorta. 

(5) Three branches from the aorta; one supplying 
the liver, another the spleen, and another the 
stomach. (6) In the abdomen the aorta divides 
into two large arteries, one going to each leg. When 
each artery reaches the thigh it is called the femoral 
artery because it is by the side of the femur. 
(7) Arteries which supply the kidneys (K). 

The Heart Rests. — All the tissues of the body must 
have rest. The heart too has its time for rest. That 
comes between the contractions ; each time there is 
a slight pause before the heart contracts again. This 
seems a short rest, yet when all these short periods 
of rest are put together they amount to between six 
and eight hours a day. 

The Heart Works. — The heart does an immense 
amount of work. Suppose the heart beats seventy 
times each minute : this would give over four thou- 
sand beats an hour, and over one hundred thousand 
a day. If all the work that the heart does in a 



A HEALTHY BODY 



single hour could be done at one beat, the force 
would equal that required to lift five tons of coal a 
foot from the ground. 

How Fast Does the Heart Beat? — Some things will 
make the heart beat fast, and others will make it 
beat slowly. Sorrow and depression of spirits make 
it beat slowly. Excitement, as joy, anger, etc., 
makes it beat fast ; exercise makes it beat fast. It 
beats faster when we are standing than when we 
are sitting; faster when sitting than when lying; 
faster when awake than when asleep. 

The number of beats is about ten more each min- 
ute in women than it is in men ; in men it is between 
sixty and seventy a minute. Some persons have 
naturally either a slow or a quick pulse. The 
number of beats per minute is less in old age, 
while in young children it is as high as 120 to 140 
a minute. 

The Sounds of the Heart. — Each time that the 
heart beats it makes two sounds. These can be dis- 
tinctly heard if the ear be placed over the heart. 
One sound quickly follows the other, and then there 
is a period of silence, during which time the heart is 
at rest. You will notice that these sounds are not 
alike. They are always of a certain character in 
health, so that the physician is able to tell, by listen- 
ing to them, whether the heart is diseased or not. 

The Pulse. — The pulse at the wrist is caused by 
the sudden expansion of the artery there, The 



CIECULATION 



97 



heart pushes so much blood into the arteries that 
it makes them swell, or expand, at each beat. 

Arteries, Veins, and Capillaries. — The largest artery 
in the body is the one that comes from the left 
ventricle of the heart ; it is called the aorta. Fig. 
29 shows that not far from the heart the aorta 
gives off many 
branches. These 
branches divide again 
and a^ain into small- 
er arteries, which 
supply every organ 
and tissue with blood. 
The arteries, in turn, 
branch into tiny tubes 
so small that they 
cannot be seen with 

the Unaided eye; a FlG - 30— (A) a small artery; ^C) capil- 
laries; (V) a small vein- 

microscope is neces- 
sary to study them. These fine branches are 
called capillaries. Fig. 30 suggests the way in 
which a small artery divides to make the capillaries, 
and also how these capillaries unite to make a small 
vein. While the blood is in these capillaries tne 
tissues take from it the oxygen which the red 
corpuscles carry; they also obtain nourishment for 
their growth and repair. 

The Lymphatics. — We have learned (see page 83j, 
that a particular set of lacteals or lymphatics 




98 



A HEALTHY BODY 



conveys the digested fats from the intestines to the 
large vein beneath the left side of the collar bone. 
There are also other lymphatics, which consist of 
very small vessels and are distributed all over the 
body. These lymphatics collect the old worn-out 
materials from all parts of the body and carry them 

to the blood vessels, 
from which they 
are taken up by 
organs made es- 
pecially for such 
work, as the kidneys 
and other glands. 

Valves in the Veins. 
— We found that 
there were valves in 
the heart to keep 
the blood from flow- 
the wrong 





m 



m 



direction ; and we 
find that there are 



Fig. 31.— (1) A vein, with the valves 
closed. The blood cannot flow in the 
direction of the arrow; (2) a vein, with 
the valves open. Nothing prevents the 
blood from flowing in the direction of many valves ill the 
the arrow. • <. , T 

veins for the same 
purpose. Fig. 31 shows the arrangement of these 
valves. In the vein marked 2 the valves are open, 
and the blood is flowing in the direction of the 
arrows without anything to prevent it. But if 
the blood should attempt to flow in the opposite 
direction, as shown in the vein marked 1, then 



CIRCULATION 99 

the valves would close and completely shut off the 
passage. 

Rapidity of the Circulation. — The heart contracts 
with such force that the flow of blood in the 
large vessels near it is very rapid, but when the 
blood passes through the small capillaries, the ra- 
pidity of its current is greatly lessened. The cur- 
rent in the veins is not so rapid as in the 
arteries, and is the slowest in the capillaries. The 
heart contracts with such force and frequency that 
a quantity of blood can leave it, go to the most 
distant parts of the body, and get back again to its 
starting place in less than half a minute. 

LOFC. 



CHAPTER XVII 

THE EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL AND TOBACCO ON THE 
HEART AND ON THE CIRCULATION 

On the Heart. — It is frequently noticed that after 
a person has taken an alcoholic drink his face 
becomes flushed and his heart for a short time beats 
faster. From this the conclusion has been drawn 
that alcohol increases the force and frequency of 
the heart-beat, and for this reason it has been 
called a stimulant. 

But recent careful experiments have shown that 
the quicker beating of the heart after alcohol is 
taken is not due to any direct action of alcohol 
upon the heart itself or upon any part of the circu- 
latory system. 

When a moderate amount of an alcoholic liquor 
is so diluted that it does not irritate the throat or 
stomach, and when the person taking it is kept 
perfectly quiet, there is seldom any quickening 
of the pulse. 

From this fact men of science infer that what 
has been called the " stimulating " action of al- 
cohol may result partly from its irritating eifects 
upon the throat and stomach; partly also from 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON CIRCULATION 101 

the inclination of the drinker to make livelier 
bodily movements than before, and we have already 
learned that muscular exercise tends to increase the 
action of the heart. 

The continued use of alcoholic drinks is a fre- 
quent cause of a thickening of the walls of the 
heart and an enlargement of its cavities. Another 
form of heart disease often due to alcohol is known 
as "fatty heart." In this disease a part of the 
strong muscular fibers of the heart give place to 
fatty material which has no power to contract ; 
hence, the heart becomes weakened and unable to 
do its work properly. 

A weak heart does not have power enough to 
send the blood completely around its circuit, and 
this causes dropsy, difficult breathing, and other 
ailments. Sometimes these changes in the heart 
are so extensive that the heart gradually becomes 
weaker and weaker until it is no longer able to 
contract, and hence ceases to beat. There are other 
causes of a " fatty heart," but medical men every- 
where recognize the use of alcohol as a frequent cause. 

On the Arteries. — The tissues that compose the 
walls of the arteries also are liable to undergo fatty 
change from the use of alcoholic liquors. As a 
result, they are weakened, and thus are more liable 
to burst. When such a break occurs in the brain, 
it causes a serious or fatal attack of a disease called 
apoplexy. 



102 A HEALTHY BODY 

On the Smaller Vessels.— There are nerves in the 
body whose only duty it is to keep the walls of the 
small blood vessels contracted to a certain size, so 
that they will be firm and not liable to become 
too full of blood. Alcohol so affects the nervous 
system that these minute nerves lose their full power. 
This may be only temporary, as when a single dose 
of alcohol is taken; or, if the dose be frequently 
repeated this condition may become permanent, so 
that entire freedom from alcohol will not restore 
the original power to the nerves. 

What do the red nose, the red eyes, and the red 
face of the confirmed drunkard show ? They show 
that the small blood vessels have become perma- 
nently distended and contain too much blood. 
Many who begin to feel the effects of alcohol would 
stop their downward course if they could. But the 
stomach demands more to quiet its burnings; the 
nerves wake from their sleep and by their aches 
and pains demand to be quieted again. The true 
physician steps in here and declares that the patient 
is ill and needs careful attention. He prescribes 
outdoor exercise, treats the inflamed stomach, allows 
only a limited diet until the liver recovers its normal 
condition and strongly advises that new friends and 
associates be formed, and that no alcoholic liquors 
be used again. If the power of self-control has not 
been too greatly weakened, temptation may be 
resisted and the weak body may slowly recover, — a 



EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON CIRCULATION 103 

happy result, which one could wish might always 
follow. 

Tobacco. — A deadly poison called nicotine is con- 
tained in tobacco. If pure nicotine be taken in 
sufficient quantity it quickly and completely para- 
lyzes the heart. When the fumes of tobacco are 
inhaled, only a very small amount of this poison 
enters the system. Still, even this small amount, 
when taken steadily for a long time, is liable to 
cause palpitation of the heart, as well as severe 
pain. Under the influence of nicotine the beat of 
the heart becomes unsteady and irregular. This 
effect is so frequently seen that physicians call this 
form of heart trouble "the tobacco heart." Some 
of the most severe cases of tobacco heart result from 
the smoking of cigarettes. 

Stimulants and Narcotics. — Alcohol has been wrongly 
called a stimulant, while it is really a narcotic. Let us 
see why. The word stimulant means something that 
increases activity. The name narcotic is applied to 
substances that decrease activity by weakening or 
deadening the nervous system, which, as we shall 
learn, governs all the activity of the body. Now the 
chief and lasting effect of alcohol is the weakening or 
deadening effect, consequently scientists class it as a 
narcotic. Tobacco is also a narcotic. Among the real 
stimulants we might name digitalis, commonly known 
as fox-glove, which is a powerful heart stimulant. 
Strychnine and nitroglycerine are also stimulants. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

RESPIRATION 

The Larynx. — After the air has passed through 
the nose it reaches the larynx. This is sometimes 

called the voice-box, be- 
cause it contains some 
membranes that are used 
in producing sounds. The 
expansion on the front of 
the larynx is commonly 
known as Adam's apple. 

The Epiglottis. — When 
food is swallowed, it 
Pig. 32.-View of the "inside of the passes down the pharynx 

nose, mouth, etc; (1) the mouth; i n to the OSSOphagUS, Or 

(2) position of the right tonsil; „ Tf ., ' ,, 

(3) the palate; (4) the epiglottis; g Ullet - il ll & 0eS tne 
(5) the tongue; (6) the nasal wrong Way, and passes 
passage; (7) the larynx; (8) the down the 1 arynx it causes 
pharynx. ' 

severe coughing. Inese 
two canals lie side by side, as shown in Fig. 32, 
at (7) and (8). How is it that food will pass down 
one, and air pass down the other? It is because 
there is a little valve at the top of the larynx which 
shuts tightly over the larynx whenever anything is 




RESPIRATION 



105 



swallowed. It always remains open when we are 
not swallowing. This valve is called the epiglottis. 

The Trachea. — Just below the larynx is the trachea, 
see Fig. 33 (3), which consists of rings of cartilage. 
These can be felt plainly in front of the throat. 
At its base the trachea divides into two branches, 
called the bronchi, one 
branch going to each 
lung. After entering the 
lungs, each branch di- 
vides again and again, 
until its branches are so 
small that it requires a 
microscope to see them. 
At the end of each little 
branch there is a collec- 
tion of minute sacs, called 
air cells ; see Fig. 34. 

The Pleura. — The inner 
walls of the chest are 
lined with a membrane 
called the pleura. This membrane also covers the 
lungs. It pours out a fluid which keeps its sur- 
faces moist, so that when the lungs move against 
the walls of the chest they can do so easily and 
without pain. An inflammation of this membrane 
is called pleurisy. 

The Lungs. — There are two lungs, one in eacli 
side of the chest. Fig. 33 will help you to under- 




Fig. 33. — The breathing organs : 
(1) the epiglottis; (2) the larynx, 
or voice-box; (3) the trachea, or 
wind-pipe; (4) the right lung; 
(5) the left lung. 



106 



A HEALTHY BODY 



stand how they look. They contract and expand ; 
this is due to a tissue in them, which is something 
like rubber, and is known as elastic tissue. In its 
natural condition it is contracted ; but it can be 
stretched out like a piece of rubber. Filling the 
lungs with air stretches this tissue; but it imme- 
diately contracts again, forcing the air out. From 

this we see that if we fill the 
lungs they will empty them- 
selves. 

How We Breathe. — Why is 
it that air enters the lungs? 
If you will watch the working 
of a pair of bellows, you will 
have the explanation. When 
the handles are separated the 

Fig. 34— (1) the end of a a i r rus hes in. Why ? Be- 

sraall bronchial tube : (2) ,-, -, 

aircells cause the air is always press- 

ing in every direction, and 
when the inside of the bellows is made larger by 
separating the handles, the air rushes in to fill the 
extra space. 

The chest is a tight box, with only one opening 
— the larynx. Suppose we suddenly make this box 
larger; then more air rushes in through the open- 
ing. How is the chest made larger ? The diaphragm 
moves down, making the chest larger in that direc- 
tion, while the ribs move and make the front and 
sides of the chest swell out. Then the air rushes in 




RESPIRATION 



107 



to fill the extra space. Trace out these changes on 
Fig. 35. 

Inspiration. — Taking air into the lungs is called 
inspiration. 

Expiration. — Breathing air out of the lungs is 
called expiration. 

Respiration. — One inspiration and one expiration, 
taken together, are called a respiration. There are 
from fifteen to eighteen respirations a minute. In- 
spiration is caused by the enlarging of the chest, 
as described above. Expiration is caused by the 
elastic tissue contracting to its natural condition, 
thus forcing: the air out. 

Voluntary or Involuntary ? — Breathing is partly 





Fig. 35 — Diagram showing the changes in the thoracic cavity during 
respiration. In (1), illustrating expiration, note the raised position of 
the diaphragm (D), and the position of the ribs. Compare in (2), illus- 
trating inspiration, the lowered diaphragm and the ribs rounded out- 
ward, through which the capacity of the chest cavity (E) is increased. 
The ribs are hinged at (B) along the backbone (A), allowing the front 
ends, joined to the sternum at (C), to move upward and outward. 



108 A HEALTHY BODY" 

under the control of the will, and partly not. We 
breathe when we are not thinking of it, and we can 
for a time breathe either more slowly or faster than 
usual. Ordinary breathing, however, is involuntary. 

Sounds of the Chest. — As the air rushes in and out 
of the lungs, it makes peculiar sounds. By listening 
to these sounds the physician is able to tell whether 
the lungs are healthy or not. 

Blood Vessels of the Lungs. — There are a great 
many blood vessels in the lungs, and there are great 
numbers of capillaries on the walls of the air cells, 
so that the air and the blood come very near each 
other. 

Why Do We Breathe? — We breathe in order to 
get the oxygen that is in the air into our bodies, and 
also to get the carbon dioxide out of the body into 
the air. How is this done ? The red corpuscles of 
the blood take the oxygen from the air and carry it 
to all parts of the body, and the blood brings back 
to the lungs the carbon dioxide it has received from 
the tissues. Thus the blood while in the lungs 
receives oxygen, and gives up carbon dioxide. 

The Expired Air. — Expired air contains this car- 
bon dioxide and two other ingredients coming from 
the body. These are a watery vapor and an animal 
substance. As a rule, we cannot see the watery 
vapor ; but on a cold, frosty morning we all say we 
can see our own breath. What we see is the watery 
vapor that has been condensed by the cold. 



RESPIRATION 109 

The animal substance mentioned is not usually 
noticed ; yet it is sometimes very marked, and we 
detect it at once if we enter a poorly ventilated 
room in which a number of persons have remained 
for some time. 




A Good Breathing Exercise. Raise the Arms Slowly during 
Inspiration; Lower them during Expiration. 

Results of Breathing. — By breathing, the blood 
gains oxygen, and loses carbon dioxide, watery 
vapor, and some animal matter. The blood does 
not take out all the oxygen from the air in the 
lungs ; therefore it is possible to live a short time 
if shut up in a small space where the same air must 
be breathed over again; but soon the amount of 



110 A HEALTHY BODY 

oxygen would become too small, and the quantity 
of carbon dioxide too great, to support life. 

Mouth Breathing. — Breathing through the mouth 
instead of through the nose is unnatural and inju- 
rious. It makes the throat dry, unfavorably affects 
the speech, and may be the cause of severe colds. 
We should always breathe through the nose ; 
some children, however, are unable to breathe in 
this way. That may be simply because the nose is 
more or less closed with secretions. Children ought 
always to be provided with a handkerchief, which 
should be used freely to keep the nose clear from 
these secretions. Sometimes children cannot breathe 
through the nose because of the presence of small 
growths, called adenoids, in the back part of the 
passages of the nose. These not only interfere with 
proper breathing, but also cause diseases of the 
ears, and interfere greatly with speech. Whenever 
their presence is suspected a physician should be 
promptly consulted. 

Tight Lacing. — Clothing may be made to fit the 
body closely and firmly without harm ; but tight 
lacing is very injurious. It interferes with the free 
action of the chest, and thereby prevents the blood 
from getting its full supply of oxygen. 

Lung Exercise. — After an ordinary inspiration we 
know that we can still take in more air by a special 
effort; and after an ordinary expiration we can still 
expel more air. By drawing in long and deep breaths, 



RESPIRATION 111 

and thevi blowing the air out slowly, we strengthen 
the lungs and increase their capacity ; and we also 
more completely change the air in the lower part of 
the lungs. All this aids greatly in maintaining the 
general health, and in diminishing the danger of 
lung trouble. This exercise of the lungs may be 
taken for a few moments two or three times each 
day with great benefit. 

Effect of Alcohol on the Lungs. — The use of alco. 
holic drinks tends to produce frequent attacks of 
bronchitis, colds, and other lung troubles. The 
alcohol in the blood of the drinker irritates the 
delicate lining of the air cells of the lungs, making 
them more liable to be attacked by the germs that 
cause disease. 

Effect of Tobacco. — Tobacco is especially injurious 
to the lungs and throat. By its use the latter is 
made dry, and the voice becomes husky from the hot 
smoke and the poison. The membrane lining of 
the larynx and the bronchial tubes is also affected, 
producing a dry, hacking cough. The smoker's 
sore throat is a very common affection, and can be 
cured only by giving up the habit altogether. Some 
smokers inhale the smoke, or draw it into their 
lungs. This is doubly injurious. 



CHAPTER XIX 
VENTILATION 

As we inhale about one pint of air each time 
that we breathe, and as the expired air has poison- 
ous substances in it, we should be careful to have 
an abundance of fresh, pure air about us all the 
time. 

In the summer time our living and sleeping rooms 
are usually well ventilated. The air is warm and 
we naturally keep the windows and doors open as 
much as possible. But in the winter time we have 
the problem of heating the air and of changing it as 
well. In all properly constructed public buildings 
there is always some provision made whereby the 
air in the rooms is changed frequently and without 
producing draughts. It is in our own homes, and 
more especially in our sleeping rooms, where venti- 
lation is usually deficient. 

We must remember that cold air is not neces- 
sarily pure air, neither is a current of air always 
pure. The ideal rooms are those in which there is 
an abundant supply of fresh air all the time. In living 
rooms, an open grate, or a register, or a stove may 
cause a sufficient current. 



VENTILATION 



113 



At night, the air in the room may be easily 
changed by slightly raising the lower sash of the 
window and lowering the upper sash. If the room 



tiYrrfmrrrrr^ yyrrr < 



\\ 


1 ; 


! 1. 






To Change the Air in a Room 

The arrows show how the fresh air enters and the bad air leaves the room 

has two windows it is better to raise the lower 
sash of one and lower the upper sash of the 
other. Another good way, especially when the 
weather is very severe, or when the wind is blowing 
very hard, is to raise the lower sash and fit in a 



114 A HEALTHY BODY 

board beneath it. Ventilation is secured because 
the two sashes do not meet ; one overlaps the other. 

The bed should be well aired, certainly for an 
hour or two before it is made in the morning. Im- 
mediately upon rising, throw all the bed clothing 
over a chair, open wide the windows of the room, 
and" thus give the clothing a good airing. It is 
also a good rule to air during the night the clothing 
we use during the day. 

Avoid Currents of Air. — If a current of air — a 
draught, as it is called — be allowed to strike on 
some sensitive part of the body, as the back of 
the neck, it is very likely to cause a cold, or 
something more severe. All currents of air should 
be avoided, especially when the body is moist with 
perspiration. 

Odors. — It is a fact that one odor can cover up 
another without destroying it. The odor of flowers 
may cover up the odor of a poorly ventilated room. 
Air may be poisonous, and yet be made agreeable 
to the sense of smell. 

Deodorizers. — Any substance that will take the 
place of an odor, and yet no*fc destroy it, or the 
cause of it, is called a deodorizer. People some- 
times burn coffee or sugar to destroy some disagree- 
able odor ; but by so doing they only cover the 
odor with one more powerful. 

Disinfectants. — Disinfectants actually destroy odors 
by destroying their cause, and are largely used by 



VENTILATION 115 

physicians to kill disease-germs and to remove odors 
that are not only offensive but also injurious to 
health. 

Absorbents. — Whitewashing a room sweetens and 
purifies the air, because the lime that is used ab- 
sorbs certain gases. Lime and charcoal are both 
good absorbents. 

Contagious Diseases. — The air we breathe may 
seem to us to be very pure because it is free from 
any disagreeable odor, and yet it may contain the 
germs of some contagious disease. By a contagious 
disease we mean a disease that can be carried from 
one person to another. The germs of such diseases 
as diphtheria and scarlet fever are easily carried by 
means of the clothing, or even in the dust of the 
atmosphere. A person may be exposed to a con- 
tagious disease and yet not contract it. Still it is 
always best to guard against the danger. Persons 
suffering from any contagious disease should be 
placed at once in a well-ventilated room, and all 
members of the family except the mother or the 
nurse should be kept away from them. 



CHAPTER XX 
SLEEP 

All animals that have a well-developed nervous 
system must, at times, lie down to rest and to sleep. 
It is necessary that not only the brain, but also the 
whole body should have this rest. 

Do not go to bed with cold feet. Better heat 
them until they are warm. If necessary, rub the 
feet thoroughly with a dry towel, and thus start a 
good circulation in them. This will bring the 
blood to the lower extremities, and will thus tend 
to reduce the amount of blood in the brain, thereby 
promoting sleep. 

We Must Sleep. — By drowsiness and weariness we 
are warned that the body needs time to repair itself ; 
and although this warning may be neglected for a 
time, yet if we are in health, sleep will overtake us, 
sooner or later, no matter where we are. 

How Long Shall We Sleep. — Some persons require 
much more sleep than others, therefore no rule can 
be given for every one. Infants sleep a good part 
of the time. In middle life the average person 
requires about eight hours of sleep ; before that age 
the time should be longer. When we cannot sleep 



SLEEP 117 

it shows that we are not in good condition. If one 
remains awake many hours beyond the usual time 
for sleep, the whole system feels the need, and most 
seriously objects. 

To Produce Sleep. — Out-door exercise during the 
day, a light and early supper, rest during the even- 
ing, and warm feet, will tend to produce sleep. 
But, with all these, if the mind be filled with petty 
anxiety or with real care, it Avill not let the body 
rest. 

Early to Bed. — The midnight lamp of the student 
should be thrown out of the window. Better work 
can be done in one hour in the morning than in two 
late at night. Students need much sleep. They do 
not need the morning nap, however, as much as they 
need the sleep that comes before midnight ; there- 
fore, " early to bed and early to rise " is as good a 
motto for the student as for the farmer. 

Plenty of sleep is one of the rules that must not 
be broken. The night should not be turned into 
day, nor the day into night, in order to please our 
fancy. He who persists in breaking Nature's laws 
will pay a severe penalty ; he will lose that which 
is more precious than gold, — a healthy body. 

Lay aside your books, go to bed early, have fresh 
air in the room, and lie down to quiet and restful 
sleep. Awake with the rising of the sun, and while 
the brain is refreshed, take up your home studies. 



CHAPTER XXI 
THE KIDNEYS 

The kidneys lie close to the back, one on each 
side of the spinal column, and above the waist line, 
as shown in Fig. 24. In shape they resemble a 
bean ; in size they are about four inches long, two 
and one-half inches wide and an inch thick. They 
are composed of a number of minute tubes, which 
are so small that they can be seen only with a 
microscope. 

The kidneys may be called the niters of the body. 
The blood is constantly flowing through them, and 
the tubes of the kidneys are steadily at work filter- 
ing from the blood certain materials that are very 
poisonous to the body. Should the kidneys fail to 
do their work, this poison would cause serious ill- 
ness, and if their work entirely ceased, death would 
result. 

One of the waste substances which the kidneys 
are obliged to remove from the blood comes from 
the meat we eat. Too much meat as a part of one's 
daily diet is therefore liable to throw too much work 
upon the kidneys. It is safer for most people to 
eat meat only once a day. 



THE KIDNEYS 119 

The daily bath, with vigorous rubbing to keep the 
pores of the skin open, helps to maintain the health 
of the kidneys. For if the skin is allowed to become 
clogged, the waste matters which should be removed 
through its pores must pass out through the kid- 
neys, and this obliges those organs to do more than 
their share of work. Exposure to cold sometimes 
produces this effect by suddenly closing the pores 
of the skin. 

Diseases of the kidneys are very common where 
large quantities of beer or other alcoholic drinks are 
daily used as beverages. A well-known German 
physician says that the kidneys are irritated by even 
moderate doses of alcohol, and it is believed to be 
one of the causes of Bright's disease. One result of 
the failure of the kidneys to remove poisonous 
waste matters from the blood is the painful disease 
called gout. An English physician says that in 
1,500 cases of gout he found only one man who was 
a total abstainer. All the others were either mod- 
erate or immoderate users of alcoholic drinks. 



CHAPTER XXII 
THE SKIN 

Uses of the Skin. — The skin serves as a protection 
to the delicate parts beneath ; throws off some of 
the waste products of the body ; and is largely con- 
cerned in regulating the temperature of the body. 

Structure. — The outer part of the skin, which is 
composed of hard and dry cells, is called the cuticle. 
It contains neither blood vessels nor nerves. It may 
be removed by gently scraping the skin with a 
knife, and without causing either pain or the flow 
of blood. Immediately beneath the cuticle, and 
joined so closely to it that we often do not dis- 
tinguish the difference, is the true skin, called the 
cutis. This is so filled wuth blood vessels and nerves 
that it cannot be pricked or cut without bringing 
blood or causing pain. 

The True Skin. — In the true skin, or cutis, there 
are, in addition to the nerves and blood vessels, 
small muscles which contract the skin, giving it 
the appearance known as goose flesh. Some of the 
muscles, as shown in Fig. 36, are fastened to the hairs 
in such a way that they can make the shorter ones 
stand more nearly erect. In the deeper parts of the 



THE SKIN 



121 



skin are two kinds of glands, — the sweat glands and 
the oil glands. 

The Sweat Glands. — A small magnifying glass will 
show the openings of the sweat glands in the ridges 




^js 



Fig. 36.— Section of human skin, magnified: (1) the outer layer, the 
epidermis; (2) the duct of a sweat gland; (3) the gland itself; (4) the 
ending of a nerve, for the sense of touch; (5) blood vessels; (6) a hair 
follicle; (7) muscle. 

that appear so plainly on the ends of the fingers 
and the palms of the hands. These openings are 
very close together, and look like little pits, or 
depressions; see Fig. 37. They are the ends of 
tubes which go down into the skin about one fourth 



122 



A HEALTHY BODY 



^rr^'T^"" 7 ^ 7 '" v :,-_y^ r - ' 



of an inch, and then coil np in a round mass like a 
ball. There are about three millions of these glands 
in the whole skin. It is their work to take water 
and some other substances from the blood and pour 
them on the surface of the skin, causing perspiration, 
or sweat. In fevers these glands are inactive, and 

the skin becomes hot and 
dry. 

Two Kinds of Perspiration. 
— What we call sensible 
perspiration accumulates 
on the surface of the body 
in varying amounts. This 
is most marked when the 
body is active and when it 
is surrounded by warm air. 
Insensible perspiration 
is evaporated as soon as it 
The surface of the appears on the surface. In 
health there is a constant 
secretion of this perspira- 
tion, but it is not ordinarily visible, and we are not 
conscious, of it. 

Checking the Perspiration. — The perspiration car- 
ries off certain poisonous matters with it. If the 
body be suddenly cooled when it has been perspir- 
ing freely, the work of carrying this matter off is 
at once thrown on other organs, and this frequently 
causes disease in them. As a result of this check, 




Fig. 37. 

skin magnified, showing the 
openings of the sweat glands. 



THE SKIN 123 

the kidneys frequently become diseased, and the 
whole body may be thrown into a high fever. This 
is also one of the most common causes of a cold. 
After exercising, or whenever the body is perspiring 
freely, it is well to remember the following rules : 
Do not get chilly; do not sit in a draught; do not 
remain in a cool room ; do not drink too much cold 
water; do not cool the body too quickly; let the 
body cool gradually, even throwing some light 
clothing over the shoulders while resting. To per- 
spire freely after exercise is good ; but suddenly to 
check the perspiration, or to allow the body to cool 
rapidly, is positively injurious, and may prove fatal. 

The Oil Glands. — The oil glands do not come to 
the surface, as do the sweat glands, but each empties 
into a sac in which a hair rests. Thus each hair has 
an oily substance poured around it continually. This 
is nature's hair-oil. It makes the hair smooth and 
glossy, and, if the scalp be in a healthy condition, it 
will furnish oil enough to keep the hair soft and 
smooth. 

The Hair. — The hairs are placed obliquely in the 
skin, as shown in Fig. 36. A hair is not hollow, as 
many people suppose, although in its center there is 
a substance softer than the outside. 

The hair does not grow from the end, but from the 
bulb, shown in Fig. 38, which is in the skin. When 
one hair is removed, another will grow in its place, 
provided the deeper parts of the skin be in a healthy 



124 



A HEALTHY BODY 



condition. There are many diseases of the hair, some 
of which cause it to fall out, others to cease grow- 
ing, and still others cause the hairs to split. In a 
great many cases, though not in all, it is possible to 

tell to what kind of an animal 
a hair belongs, by the appear- 
ance of the hair under the 
microscope ; see Fig. 39. 

Care of the Hair. — Boys 
should wash the head at least 
once a week with soapy water, 
rinsing the head with clear 
water, and then rubbing the 
hair with a towel until it is 
nearly dry. Girls may not 
find it convenient to do this 
more than once a month, 
owing to the difficulty of 
drying the hair, if it is long 
and heavy. This " shampoo- 
ing " of the scalp keeps it 

Fig. 38.— A human hair in ° L x 

its sheath or follicle, mag- clean and healthy and con- 

nified ;(H) the hair ;(M) the tributes to the growth of the 
muscle ; (G) the oil gland. , . 

The Hands. — Notice how wonderfully the hand is 
adapted to its purpose. Its beautiful outline and 
delicacy of coloring have ever made it the study of 
artists. We should use great care that our hands 
be kept as clean and neat as possible at all times 




THE SKIN 



125 



Clean hands and face, clean teeth, and well-combed 
hair add greatly to the appearance of any boy or 
girl. We sometimes grow careless, but when we 
stop to think about it, we must feel that a clean, 
neat appearance is a natural bodily evidence of a 
wholesome, energetic mind. 

The Nails. — The nails are composed of minute cells 
which are very hard and firm. They protect the ends 
of the fingers and 
toes, and they give 
aid to the fingers in 
picking up small ob- 
jects. The nails grow 
from behind forward, 
and they are con- 
stantly being pushed 
outward. The finger 
nails should always 
be neatly trimmed 
and perfectly clean. 
This is very easily done by the use of a nail file or scis- 
sors. Biting the nails is a very unclean and offensive 
habit; besides, it injures the shape of the nails. 

Bathing. — Personal cleanliness is a duty that we 
owe to all who are around us ; and we should bathe 
for that reason if there were no other. Bathing 
also is necessary to the best condition of the body. 
It removes oily substances, dirt, and many waste 
products. To remove thoroughly the natural secre- 





Fig. 39 A, Human 
hair as seen with 
a microscope. 



Fm. 39 B, Cat hair 
as seen with a mi- 
croscope. 



126 A HEALTHY BODY 

tions of the oil glands and sweat glands it is neces- 
sary that a hot bath, with soap, be taken at least 
once each week. This hot bath is for purpose of 
cleanliness, and cannot take the place of the cool 
sponge bath which ought to be taken every morn- 
ing. This cool bath can be quickly taken, and 
should always be followed by a brisk rubbing of the 
skin. Such a morning bath acts as a general skin 
tonic, and it aids in keeping the glands of the skin 
in a healthy condition. When the skin is inactive, 
then the waste products of the body, which it 
throws off in health, have to be carried off through 
other channels, as through the lungs and kidneys. 
There is then danger that these organs will be 
overworked, and so become more liable to disease. 

When Not to Bathe. — We should not bathe when 
very tired, nor just before or after a hearty meal, 
nor in very cold or very hot water, or when the 
body is perspiring freely. 

Ordinary Diseases of the Skin. — When the skin 
becomes diseased it should be treated by a physician. 
The most ordinary diseases of the skin are the hives, 
heat rash, eczema and itch. 

The hives, or nettle rash, which appears suddenly 
and causes great burning and itching, is generally 
due to some disturbance of the digestion, and passes 
away when the cause is removed. 

Heat rash, or prickly heat, affects the sweat glands 
of the skin. It is caused by working in an over- 



THE SKIN 127 

heated room, or any other exposure to extreme heat. 

The disease known as eczema, or salt rheum, 
usually begins as a small red spot which itches and 
burns, and soon has scales on its surface. 

A highly contagious disease called the itch is due 
to the presence in the skin of minute animals, so 
small that a microscope is required to see them. 
They produce an irritation which causes intense 
itching, especially of the hands and between the 
fingers. This disease would not exist if the ordinary 
rules of hygiene were observed. 

Contagious Diseases Affecting the Skin. — In chicken 
pox the rash generally appears in from ten days to 
two weeks after exposure to the disease. The 
attack is often mild, but the sick child should be 
isolated to protect those who are well. 

After exposure to the measles it is ten days to two 
weeks before the rash appears. Isolate the patient. 
One attack usually protects against another. 

In the case of scarlet fever it is often only four or 
five clays after exposure before the rash appears. 
This is a serious and highly contagious disease. 
One attack of this disease usually protects against 
another. 

Smallpox is a disease of the most serious nature. 
Like scarlet fever, it is caused by a germ and is 
highly contagious. Immediate isolation is neces- 
sary. As vaccination is almost always a preventive, 
every child should surely be vaccinated. 



CHAPTER XXIII 
TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY 



Throughout the heat of summer and the 
cold of winter, the body keeps at the same 
temperature. You may be in a very hot 
room one hour, and in a cold one the next ; 
but the bodily heat will be at a fixed point ; 
98i°F. (Fig. 40). This heat is the result of 
98i° F. the many changes that are taking place in 
the body, by which the food is made to 
nourish it and to furnish energy. 

The temperature of warm-blooded an- 
imals, men, dogs, birds, etc., is generally 
above that of the air surrounding them; 
while the temperature of cold-blooded 
animals is about the same as that of the 

Fig. 40. -A . v' ,, 

body ther- air or water surrounding them. 
mometer. A Cold. — Usually a cold is caused by ex- 
posure to sudden changes in temperature, a strong 
draught of air coming against the back of the 
neck, damp clothing or wet feet. When a cold is 
first taken, the blood leaves the surface of the body, 
causing the skin to become cold and inactive. It 
may frequently be broken up by making the skin 



TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY 129 

warm and active again; by taking brisk exercise 
out of doors, or indoors if it does not seem wise to 
go out. When bedtime comes, if there is any sus- 
picion of a cold, take a hot foot bath and drink a 
cupful of hot lemonade or hot ginger tea just before 
going to bed. This will send the blood to the 
surface of the body again and set the skin to work. 
Such treatment may prevent a serious illness. 

To Prevent Colds. — It is not wise to "bundle up" 
the throat much even in cold 'weather. Sufficient 
clothing should be worn about the neck to protect 
it from the storm, but that is all. The best pre- 
ventive of colds is a cool sponge bath each morning, 
which, as already suggested, should be quickly 
taken and followed by a vigorous rubbing. This so 
accustoms the system to cold that it is not nearly so 
liable to be affected by any change in the weather. 

Never sit with wet feet, but if possible remove 
the damp shoes and stockings at once and rub the 
feet thoroughly. If this is not possible, then keep 
walking or exercising until the feet are dry. When- 
ever your clothing is damp or wet, change it as 
soon as possible. In the meantime keep the body 
from getting chilled by quick walking or some other 
exercise. While changing the damp for dry clothing 
give the skin a brisk rubbing, in order to restore it 
to its normal condition. 

The Objects of Clothing and Food. — Food supplies 
heat to the body; for we have said that the heat of 



130 



A HEALTHY BODY 



the body is caused by the changes going on in the 
tissues, — by the changing of food into tissue. One 
object of clothing is to prevent too great a loss of 




Barefoot Boys in Summer-Time 



heat from the body; for the air surrounding the 
body is nearly always cooler than the body itself. 
It follows, then, that clothing answers a purpose 
similar to that of food. Food produces heat, and 
clothing prevents its escape. Therefore poorly fed 
persons need more clothing in winter than those 



TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY 131 

who are well fed. Men and animals do not need so 
much food when kept warm as they do when they 
are cold, and they can do much better work if well 
protected from the cold. Clothing protects the 
body from many injuries, from storms, and from the 
burning rays of the sun. 

The Clothing of Animals. — The lower animals have 
no choice as to what they shall wear. Nature gives 
them an abundant covering:, which in some cases is 
very beautiful. She sometimes changes their cloth- 
ing for them, as when the horse sheds his heavy 
coat of hair in the spring, so that he may have a 
lighter one during the heat of summer. But man is 
left to make his own choice of clothing. 

The Weight of Clothing. — Heavy clothing is not 
necessarily warm. Loosely knit shawls are very 
light, and yet very warm. There is a great deal of 
air confined in their meshes, and air is not a good 
conductor of heat. 

The shoulders should, as far as is possible, be made 
to bear the weight of the clothing. Then the lungs 
and heart are not compressed, and the stomach 
and liver are not affected. Clothing worn in 
this manner does not prevent the free circulation of 
the blood, does not compress any organ, and does 
not interfere with the natural, graceful movements 
of the body. 

Too High a Temperature. — We should avoid over- 
heating the body and thus causing it to become 



132 A HEALTHY BODY 

weak ; overheating may be caused by wearing too 
much clothing, but more often by living in rooms 
that are kept at too high a temperature. The ther- 
mometer should not be over 70° F. in our living 
rooms. 

Sources of Material for Clothing. — In the winter 
much of our clothing is made from wool; this is 
because woolen clothing is warmer than clothing 
made from either linen or cotton. In cold weather 
it is safer to wear wool next the skin, as it is the 
best safeguard against sudden changes of temper- 
ature. The wool is obtained from sheep. Many 
sheep are now raised in the western part of our own 
country. Australia is also a great sheep raising 
country, herds there frequently consist of hundreds 
of thousands of sheep. The wool is first thoroughly 
cleansed, then spun into yarn and then woven into 
cloth. 

Linen is made from flax, which is the plant from 
which we obtain the ordinary flaxseed. Certain 
parts of the stalk of the flax are removed and pre- 
pared in such a way that it is easily spun into 
thread. The ordinary linen sewing thread is made 
from flax. The flax threads are made of different 
sizes ; some are woven into cloth for clothing, table 
linen ? etc. Linen clothing is cooler than woolen. 

The cotton cloth with which we are so familiar is 
made from the cotton plant which is grown largely 
in the southern states. The cotton is first picked, 



TEMPERATURE OF THE BODY 133 

then cleansed, then spun into thread, then woven 
into cloth. Cotton clothing is warmer than linen. 

Night Clothing. — More clothing is necessary at 
night, because the temperature at night is usually 
colder, the body is not being exercised, and the 
circulation of the blood is not so rapid. Good 
health requires that all clothing worn through the 
day should be changed at night. 

Effects of Alcohol on Temperature. — The question 
we have to answer here is this : Do alcoholic drinks 
raise the temperature ? What truth is there in such 
a statement as this : " It is a cold day, we must take 
something to warm us ; " or, " We must take some 
whiskey with us, it will be a long drive, and we 
shall get very cold." These statements are made 
because many people think that alcohol warms the 
body; in other words, that it raises the tempera- 
ture of the body. Is there any truth in this? 

During the first effects of alcohol on the sys- 
tem the capillaries become distended and more blood 
than usual is then sent to the capillaries of all 
parts of the body. More warm blood than usual 
goes to the skin at the surface of the body, and 
the nerves in the skin are thus made to feel dis- 
tinctly warmer. 

The internal parts of the body, however, are 
seldom if ever made any warmer by alcohol, and 
if so only a fraction of a degree and for a Yery 
short time. The feeling of increased warmth, also, 



131 A HEALTHY BODY 

is only temporary, for while it lasts the body is 
actually becoming colder. The reason for this is 
explained as follows : 

By sending more warm blood than usual to the sur- 
face of the body, more is exposed to the surrounding 
air, which is almost always below 98^ degrees, the 
temperature of the healthy body. The result is that 
the blood, and the internal parts to which it returns, 
are thereby obliged to give up their heat more 
rapidly than before this disturbance. As a conse- 
quence the body as a whole becomes more quickly 
cooled. From this it is easy to see why it is 
particularly dangerous for one to take any alcoholic 
drink before going out into the cold, or while ex- 
posed to severe weather. 

The teachings of science in this matter are abun- 
dantly confirmed by the testimony of experience. 



CHAPTEE XXIV 
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 

The nervous system consists of the brain, the 

spinal cord, and the nerves. 

The Brain. — The brain is a lar^e 
mass of nervous tissue filling the cavity 
of the skull. It is well protected by 
membranes which completely surround 
it, and by the strong walls of the skull 
itself. The surface of the brain is not 
smooth, but is thrown into irregular 
ridges. It is full of blood vessels, some 
of which are quite large; but the ma- 
jority are minute capillaries. 

The White and the Gray Matter The 

brain consists of two kinds of nerve 
matter, — the white and the.gray matter. 

Pig. 41.— Nerve The former is composed largely of nerve 

fibers, rnagni- fib /p- ^ whi]e th lfttt CQn . 

fled. . . . y 

sists principally of nerve cells (Fig. 
42). The gray matter is on the outside of the 
brain. It is the gray matter that commands, while 
the white matter obeys. Thoughts first arise in the 
gray matter; the white matter conveys the messages 
to the different parts of the body. 




136 



A HEALTHY BODY 



The Cerebrum. — The part of the brain above the 
ears is called the cerebrum, or the great brain; 
the part at the back of the head, beneath the cere- 
brum, is called the cerebellum, or the lesser brain. It 




Fig. 42. — Various forms of nerve cells. 

is supposed that the cerebrum is the abode of the 
mind. Here we think, and know, and reason. 

The cerebrum (Fig. 43) is divided into two parts 
by a natural groove in the middle, passing from 
the front backwards. From this it would seem 
that we have two brains, — a right brain and a left 
brain. But at the bottom of this groove the 
halves are united by a band of nervous tissue, 
so doubtless their action is in some way connected. 
The ridges, or convolutions, of the cerebrum vary 
in different animals, see Fig. 45. As a rule, the 
more intelligent the animal, the more numerous are 



THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 



137 



these convolutions, and the deeper the depressions 
between them. 

The Weight of the Brain. — The brain of the ele- 
phant is the heaviest known. It weighs from eight 
to ten pounds. The brain of the whale comes next, 
and weighs from six to 
eight pounds. The av- 
erage weight of the hu- 
man brain is, for the male, 
a trine over three pounds, 
and for the female, about 
one third of a pound less. 

Something More Than 
Brain Needed. — A man 
may have a large and fine 
brain, a healthy body, and 




Fig. 43. — The human bruin 
(reduced), viewed from above; 
only the cerebrum is seen. 



be in every other way 
fitted to succeed in life, 
and yet lack the desire to 
put his powers into action. We say that such a per- 
son has no ambition. He is disposed to take life too 
easily. In addition to a healthy body and a good 
brain, we must have a desire to work, — an ambi- 
tion to do the very best we can in all we undertake. 
We must remember that the brain works, hence it 
wears out like any other tissue ; it must therefore be 
kept well supplied with new material. School chil- 
dren need plenty of plain, wholesome food, and an 
abundant supply of fresh air. 



138 A HEALTHY BODY 

The Cerebellum. — The cerebellum is beneath the 
back part of the cerebrum. It has no convolutions, 
although there are ridges running over its surface 
parallel to each other (Fig. 44 (2)). 

The Medulla Oblongata. — At the upper end of the 

spinal cord, and between it and the brain, is an 

l 




Fig. 44. — Side view of the whole human brain: (1) cerebrum; (2) cere- 
bellum ; (3) medulla. 

enlarged part of the spinal cord, called the medulla 
oblongata, or the bulb. It is well protected by the 
thick bones at the base of the skull. This part of 
the brain controls the breathing and regulates the 
action of many parts. It must be regarded as the 
most delicate portion of the whole body. The cere- 
brum, or the cerebellum, may be entirely removed 
without immediately destroying life. Portions of 
the cerebrum, cerebellum, or spinal cord may be 



THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 



139 



removed, and recovery follow. But if the medulla 
be destroyed, death will follow instantly. 

The Spinal Cord. — The spinal cord is nearly cir- 
cular in shape, about eighteen inches in length, and 
half an inch in thickness. It connects above with 
the medulla, and terminates at the lower end of the 
spinal column in a num- 
ber of fine threads. The 
spinal cord, like the 
brain, is divided into 
halves. A groove or 
fissure extends down its 
front and another down 
its back, nearly dividing 
it. From each half, or 
each side, of the cord, 
there are given off thirty- 
one nerves. Study Fig. 
46. 

Structure of the Cord. 
— The cord is composed of gray and white matter, 
similar to that in the brain, but here the gray matter 
is in the center of the cord, and is collected together 
in such a manner that when the cord is cut across 
the gray matter resembles the letter H (Fig. 47). 
The nerve fibers go up and down the cord, and carry 
messages to and from the brain. After entering 
the brain these fibers are distributed through all 
parts of it, and are connected with the nerve cells. 




Fig. 45.— (1) Brain of pigeon; (2) 
brain of frog, — both viewed from 
above. There are no convolu- 
tions on the cerebrum. 



140 



A HEALTHY BODY 



The Nerve 
Centers. — The 
brain and the 
spinal cord are 
called the nerve 
centers. From 
these the major- 
ity of the nerves 
take their origin. 

The Nerves. — 
There are two 
kinds of nerves, 
— the sensory, or 
nerves of feeling, 
and the motor, 
or nerves of mo- 
tion. The sen- 
sory nerves carry 
messages from 
different parts of 
the body to the 
t* Aa mx . i ■• « nerve centers. 

Fig. 46. — The nervous system, snowing the 

spinal cord and the main nerves branching 1 hey COHVey to 

from it. The grooves in the cord are not ^ e Qrain impres- 

shown. . -II 

sions made on the 
tongue that something is sweet or sour; or impres- 
sions made on the ear by harsh or gentle sounds ; 
or on the eye by colors. These impressions are 
made on the outer ends of the nerves ; the nerves 




THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 



141 



carry them to the spinal cord ; then up the cord to 
the brain, where, in some mysterious way, we are 
made aware of what is go- 
ing on at the distant ends 
of the nerves. 

The motor nerves convey 
messages in an opposite di- 
rection, that is, from the 
nerve centers outward to 
the muscles, causing them 
to contract or relax. 

Each one of the spinal 
nerves is connected with 
the cord by two roots. 
One root enters the front 
of the cord, and is com- 
posed of motor nerves ; the 
other enters the back of the 
cord, and is composed of 
sensory nerves. 

Reflex Action.— Reflex ac- Fig.*? -Cross sections of the 

spinal cords of different ani- 
tion is Well illustrated by roals, represented twice the 

tickling the foot of a per- natliral size: tt) horse ; ( 2 ) ox ; 

° . L, (3) man; (4) hog; (5) squirrel. 

son who is asleep. Ine 

foot will be quickly drawn away, and yet the 
mind will know nothing of it. Fig. 48 illustrates 
how the sensation or impression goes from the 
skin of the foot to the spinal cord by one set 
of nerves, and how a message is sent from the 




142 A HEALTHY BODY 

spinal cord down to the muscles by another set of 
nerves. 

The spinal cord is the great reflex center. Im- 
pressions carried to it by the sensory nerves are 
acted upon, as just shown, without going to the 
brain. Even the will is not strong enough to 
control all the reflex acts, for if we inhale pepper, 
we either cough or sneeze, and cannot prevent it. 
It is purely a reflex act. We may determine not to 

sneeze, but it is of no use. 

The Nerve Current. — The 
peculiar power carried by the 
nerves is called the nerve 
current, or nerve force. It 
travels along the nerves at 
ing reflex action: (S.) the the rate of over one hundred 

skin; (M) a muscle; (C) sec- feet ft gecon( l. ^ e ^O not 

tion of the spinal cord. The . . 

arrows represent the direc- know what this nerve force 

tion of the nerve current [^ although we can interfere 

during a reflex act. .,t .. , . t T t t 

with its action. We may be 
seated in a cramped position, so that some nerve 
is pressed ; the nerve current is disturbed, and when 
we try to move the leg we feel pain. We say the 
leg is asleep. It may be impossible to move the leg 
at first, owing to a complete stopping of the current. 
Study is a Healthful Exercise. — The cerebrum is 
generally regarded as the seat of the mind. We 
know that there is a very general law that the 
proper exercise of a part tends to make it grow 




THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 143 

and develop. It is possible, therefore, by properly 
exercising the brain, to aid the growth and de- 
velopment of the intellect. AVhile the mind can 
be greatly improved by exercise, it can also be 
injured by over-exercise. Study, under the right 
conditions, is a healthful exercise. 

The Sympathetic System. — This system consists of 
a number of little masses of nerve cells and of nerve 
fibers. The little masses of cells are placed on the 
sides and in front of the whole length of the spinal 
column. They are connected with one another by 
means of the nerve fibers. Nerve fibers also con- 
nect them with the spinalcord and the brain. 

The sympathetic system exerts its influence over 
the minute blood vessels, causing these to contract 
or expand. A good illustration of this is seen in 
the act of blushing, which is the result of the in- 
fluence of the sympathetic nerves in allowing the 
minute blood vessels of the face to expand and 
become more filled with blood. The opposite effect 
is shown when the blood vessels of the face are con- 
tracted so that they contain but little blood, as when 
the face is very pale from fear. The sympathetic 
system also controls, to a greater or lesser degree, 
the various processes of digestion and nutrition, and 
other functions of the body, which are carried on 
without our giving any attention to them. 

The medulla also has control over the size of the 
minute blood vessels. 



CHAPTER XXV 

ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE NERVOUS 
SYSTEM 

If the effects of alcohol on the nervous system 
were only more fully understood before the desire 
for it is created, its use as a beverage would be 
greatly diminished. There are many persons who 
begin to take some form of alcoholic beverage 
because they are asked to do so by others whom 
they do not like to refuse. Or they find themselves 
in the society of those who use such drinks, and 
the desire to be social and popular leads to a com- 
pliance with the general custom. 

Others begin to drink some form of alcoholic liq- 
uor because they have been led to think that it 
may do them good. They are in poor health, yet 
hardly wish to consult a physician, so they take 
some alcoholic drink, as beer, or wine, hoping 
thereby to improve their appetite and strengthen 
their digestion. Failing to receive immediate bene- 
fit, they continue the use of these intoxicating 
drinks until a habit is formed. When the system 
has been under the influence of these drugs for a. 
considerable length of time, the effect is such that 
the person believes he cannot live without them. 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE NEKVOUS SYSTEM 145 

He may, however, try to go without his drinks for 
a time, but they have made an impression upon his 
nervous system and he finds it almost impossible to 
throw off their paralyzing effects. 

One of the most striking things about alcohol is 
its peculiar effect on the nervous tissue of the 
brain, the spinal cord and the nerves. Indeed we 
may go further than this and say that alcohol 
seems to have a special attraction for the nervous 
system. To explain this it is only necessary to 
say that some drugs when taken into the system 
exert almost all of their power on the liver, others 
on the kidneys, others on the skin, and so on. Now 
when alcoholic drinks are absorbed into the blood 
and carried to all parts of the body, the nervous 
tissue is acted upon more powerfully than the 
other tissues. In other words, when alcohol is 
taken it is carried to all the tissues, but more goes 
to the nervous tissue, in proportion, than to any 
other tissue. We may say that alcohol has a special 
attraction for this tissue. 

We must keep in mind that alcohol is a nar- 
cotic ; it benumbs, paralyzes, stupefies. It may not 
completely paralyze the whole system, but to a 
greater or lesser degree it diminishes the power of 
the muscles, deadens sensation in parts of the body, 
interferes with the action of the spinal cord, and 
prevents the brain from doing its best work. 

Although alcohol really benumbs or paralyzes 



146 * A HEALTHY BODY 

nerve tissue, it appears at first to excite the person 
who takes it. But this excitement is not the 
healthy, trustworthy activity of a sound brain. It 
is an untrustworthy mental condition in which the 
judgment, the reason and the conscience do not 
control the words and the conduct as they should. 
This unhealthy excitement of the brain is followed 
by a reaction which leaves the brain in a weaker 
condition than before. Here again is another reason 
why one dose of alcohol so often leads to another. 
When the period of excitement has passed the body 
feels wxak and exhausted and the temptation to 
take more is often too great for the person to over- 
come. 

To show that alcohol has a direct effect on the 
spinal cord, it is only necessary to watch a person 
who is under its influence as he attempts to walk 
the street. He has to think of his walking, as 
he cannot think of something else and walk also. 
He thinks intently about the movements of his 
limbs, in order to make them correctly. Yet he 
may think ever so hard and not be able to control 
the action of his muscles, because the spinal cord 
is partly paralyzed from the alcoholic poisoning. 

Some persons cannot take even a small glass 
of brandy or whiskey without acting in a very dis- 
orderly way. The alcohol seems to expend its 
power largely on the brain and spinal cord. To 
produce the same effect on others, especially those 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 147 

who are in the habit of taking alcoholic drinks, 
larger doses are necessary. Yet it may be truth- 
fully stated that in all circumstances and under all 
conditions the nervous system suffers from the effect 
of alcoholic liquors more than any other part of 
the body 

Notice how the brain of a man under the influ- 
ence of an intoxicating drink is affected. His sen- 
tences are broken and his ideas confused. His 
brain is over-excited aud his will has lost the power 
to command. Reason has stepped aside and now 
the merely animal part of the man's nature assumes 
control. The cruel man becomes more cruel, the 
untruthful more false, and the vile man shows his 
true disposition. The muscles respond to commands 
but feebly, and the limbs scarcely support the body. 
Words cannot be formed and only confused sounds 
escape. If these effects extend but a little further, 
the brain is completely overpowered, the voluntary 
muscles cease to act, sensation is lost, and the body 
becomes a mere senseless mass of flesh. 

As a rule, the brain loses its power before the 
heart ; that is, when death occurs from almost any 
cause the person will become unconscious before the 
heart ceases to beat. So the person who indulges 
in strong drink often has his life spared because he 
is made unconscious before he has taken enough 
poison to stop the beating of his heart. If he could 
drink more he would probably do so; but being 



148 A HEALTHY BODY 

unconscious he cannot, and thereby nature is given 
time to throw off the poison before a fatal effect is 
produced. Did the heart fail before the brain, 
then the number of immediate deaths from alcohol 
would be greatly increased. 

Yet many people use intoxicating drinks as a 
beverage who never become intoxicated. This 
brings us to the question whether moderate and fre- 
quently repeated doses of alcohol have any serious 
effect upon the nervous system. There is without 
doubt a direct effect of alcohol on the nerve tissue 
itself. When alcohol is taken into the system it is 
carried to all parts of the body, hence some of the 
alcohol must be carried directly to the delicate 
structures of the brain. This direct effect of the 
alcohol on the brain cells must be very marked, while 
the indirect effect on the brain produced by changes 
in its supply of blood is also a prominent factor. 

The high-power microscope and staining processes 
of recent times have shown that alcohol causes a 
shrinking of the delicate ends of the nerve branches. 
A medical writer says, in speaking of the effect of 
alcohol as a medicine, that when a person has long 
been under its influence " the nerve cells of the gray 
matter are more or less fatty and shrunken." He 
further says that as a result of the shrinkage of 
these cells and of the other tissues of the brain also, 
" the whole cerebrum becomes smaller and the space 
thus made becomes filled with a watery fluid." The 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, ANT) THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 149 

use of alcohol results in impaired mental power, 
muscular trembling, and a shambling gait. 

The injury to the brain by alcohol tends to a loss 
of moral sensitiveness. A person in this condition 
is usually indifferent as to the influence which his 
example and precept in favor of moderate drinking 
may have in leading others into peril and ruin. 

Eminent physicians tell ns, as the result of their 
long study and experience, that men who drink are 
more liable than total abstainers to be attacked by 
disease ; and further, that they have less power to 
resist disease.* 

Delirium Tremens. — This disease may be caused 
by a single intoxication, but usually it is the result 
of long continued use of alcoholic drinks. It is one 

* Dr. A. Baer, an eminent German physician, writes: "The liabili- 
ties to sickness are greater among drinking men than among abstain- 
ers, because alcohol weakens the vitality, lessens the power of re- 
sistance, renders the body more susceptible to disease. For these 
reasons it is strikingly true that in times of epidemics, sickness and 
mortality occur most and first among drinking men." 

The Lancet, a leading English medical journal, says: "It is not 
only that alcohol causes disease of the gravest character directly, but 
that by the general misery and innutrition of families which it in- 
volves, it favors all other degenerations." 

Professor Fick, a great German teacher of physiology, said, not 
long before his death: "The inexorable reaper is at work with his 
scythe mowing down families attached to alcohol and sparing those 
that are armed with either a natural or an acquired dislike for the 
poison." 

The Journal of the American Medical Association, a leading medi- 
cal paper in this country, said recently: " Every physician who is a 



150 A HEALTHY BODY 

of the most terrible of all the effects of alcohol. The 
victim is wild with fear and dread of imaginary 
creatures which he fancies are trying to do him 
harm. 

Effect on the Mind. — One of the first, and yet one 
of the most serious effects of alcohol is that it 
greatly weakens the will power, while at the same 
time it increases the desire for more alcohol. The 
slightly intoxicated man goes about the streets sing- 
ing and laughing in a very silly way. He is easily 
provoked, does very rash things, and becomes an 
object of sport to thoughtless boys. 

general practitioner has had frequent opportunities of observing how 
readily those who are habitual drinkers succumb to disease. This 
fact is well demonstrated in military life, as well as by those who 
endure great hardships in exploration and navigation; neither can 
alcoholics stand the extremes of heat and cold as well as the non- 
alcoholic." 

Professor Woodhead, of Cambridge University, England, says: 
"It has been proved that even healthy people taking alcohol have 
their power of resisting disease of various kinds very materially 
diminished in the process." 

Dr. A. Forel, a noted physician of Switzerland, says: "Diseases 
of all kinds are hastened and run a more serious course, often a 
fatal one, in consequence of the habit of drinking alcoholics." 

A number of leading physicians in Germany, not many years ago, 
drew up and signed a public declaration which contained, among 
others, the following statements: 

"It is an absolutely scientific fact that alcoholic drinks more than 
any other factor injure our national life, diminish the physical and 
intellectual forces of our race, impregnate them with hereditary dis- 
eases and lead to degeneracy. . . . Moderation, as it is generally 
understood, predisposes man in an appreciable manner to certain 
maladies and shortens life. ..." 



ALCOHOL, TOBACCO, OPIUM, AND THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 151 

Consider a man who is honest and kind when 
sober. Who can tell what he will do when under 
the influence of the alcohol poison ? If the drink- 
ing be continued, the will power sooner or later 
suffers. The desire for drink becomes greater and 
greater until nothing will be thought too dear to 
exchange for it. The records of crime show that 
a large percentage is committed by persons under 
the influence of liquor. Indeed, the effect of alcohol 
is to lead men to commit deeds from which they 
would shrink if they were in their right minds. 
While such results follow the use of alcohol in 
large quantities, yet the frequent use of small doses 
may also impair the mind. 

Tobacco. — Tobacco frequently produces a feeling 
of nervous restlessness, which is most noticeable 
when the person, for some reason, does not indulge 
in his usual smoke. We have already seen how it 
produces such an effect on the nerves of the heart 
as to cause a particular kind of trouble, called the 
tobacco heart. 

Opium. — Opium affects all parts of the body, but 
especially the nervous system. Under its continued 
use the memory fails, and there is a partial paralysis 
of the lower limbs, giving a stooping appearance. 
A distaste for food follows, the stomach refuses to 
act, and in many cases death results. A marked 
feature about the opium habit is that its victim has 
an almost irresistible desire to repeat the dose. The 



152 A HEALTHY BODY 

amount must be gradually increased to produce the 
desired effect, until sometimes the quantity taken is 
enormous. Under the influence of this drug, the 
sense of right and wrong is sadly blunted, the mind 
is weakened, and the whole body is thrown into a 
dazed stupor, unfitting the victim for any sphere in 
life. 



CHAPTER XXVI 
THE SENSE OF SIGHT 

The Eye. — The eye is well protected in a deep 
socket of bone. The brows project over it, and are 
covered with thick hair, which lies in such a direc- 
tion that the perspiration from the forehead will be 
carried to each side of the face, and will not run into 
the eyes. Directly in front of the eyes are two 
curtains, which can be quickly and freely moved. 
These are the upper and lower lids. The upper lid 
can be moved much more freely than the lower. 
The lids have a row of delicate hairs on their edges, 
called eyelashes. These are of great use to the eye, 
even in the dark ; for if an insect or any particle of 
matter comes in contact with the eyelashes, the eye- 
lids close at once, preventing the harmful object 
from touching the eye itself. 

The eyelids protect the delicate eye from heat and 
cold, they keep out dust and dirt, they regulate the 
amount of light to be admitted to the eye, and they 
spread over the eyeball the moisture from the tear 
glands. 

The Oil Glands. — There are many small glands 
in the eyelids which secrete an oily substance 



154 



A HEALTHY BODY 



that flows over the edges of the lids and keeps 
them from adhering to one another. It also tends 
to keep the tears from running over the edges of 
the lids and down upon the face. 

The Tear Glands. — Tears are secreted by two small 

glands, the lachrymal 
glands. Each gland 
is found at the outer 
and upper part of the 
eyeball, between the 
eyeball and the bone 
(Fig 49). The se- 
cretion is a constant 
one, and the fluid is 
distributed over the 

Fig. 49. -(1) the lachrymal gland that eyeball by the move- 
secretes the tears; (2) the duets that ments of the eyelids. 

Some of this secretion 
is evaporated from 
the eyeball, but the 
greater part is carried 
away through two openings. There is one open- 
ing in each lid on the side next the nose. The one 
on the lower lid may easily be seen by looking 
in a mirror and slightly pulling the lower lid 
down. The two openings of each eye enter a 
duct or canal which passes into the nose. Gen- 
erally the tears pass through this duct, but some- 
times more are secreted than can pass through it ; 




carry the tears from the gland to the 
eye; (3) the duct for the passage of 
the tears to the nose; (4) the iris; the 
pupil is the black spot inside the 
circle of the iris. 



THE SENSE OF SIGHT 



155 



then they flow over the eyelids and down upon the 
cheeks. 

The Eyeball. — The eyeball is a round body with 
many membranes, or coats, surrounding it. The 
illustration (Fig. 50) shows that the eyeball is not 
perfectly round, for the front bulges out. This 
front and highly 
curved part is 
transparent, and 
through it the 
light readily 
passes. c 

The colored 
circle of the eye, 
which makes it 
appear black or 
brown or blue, is 
called the iris. It 
is found in the 
middle of the eye, with a circular hole in its center, 
called the pupil. See Fig. 49. 

By the action of certain muscles the size of the 
pupil may be changed. If the light is too bright, 
the pupil will be made smaller, so that but little 
light will reach the back of the eye ; but if the 
light is very dim, then the pupil will enlarge, in 
order that as much light as possible may reach it. 

The pupil is not found in all animals ; in the cat 
it is simply an upright slit when .it is contracted, 




Fig. 50.— (P) the pupil; (L) the lens; (N) the 
optic nerve ; (C) the cornea. 



156 . A HEALTHY BODY 

but round when it is fully opened. It may become 
so large in this animal that enough light enters the 
eye to enable the cat to see when it is so dark that 
we cannot. 

How We See. — The light enters the front of the 
eye, passes through the pupil, then through the 
tens, and lastly strikes a delicate membrane at the 
back of the eye. This membrane is directly con- 
nected with the brain by means of the optic nerve. 
When we look at an object, an image of it is made 
on this delicate membrane, and the optic nerve con- 
veys the impression to the brain. If we cut the 
optic nerve, and thus sever the connection between 
the eye and the brain, the image is made on the eye 
exactly as before, only the brain has no knowledge 
of it. The eye may be compared to the camera of the 
photographer; it is the photographer who sees, not his 
camera. So it is the brain which sees, not the eye. 

Care of the Eyes. — There are many causes of 
trouble with the eyes. If the whole body is weak, 
the eyes also are likely to be weak. They are then 
easily tired, and the ordinary use of them may cause 
them to become inflamed. As inflammation of the 
membranes of the throat is caused by a cold, so the 
delicate membrane covering the front of the eye 
becomes inflamed from the same cause. The eyes 
feel as if there were sand in them, and at times they 
are used only with great pain. Whenever the eyes 
are inflamed, when their use causes pain, or when 



THE SENSE OF SIGHT 157 

reading causes headache, a competent physician 
should be consulted, to discover what the trouble 
is, and to remedy it, if possible. 

It is a terrible misfortune to be blind, and very 
sad to have the eyes so weak that the pleasure of 
reading and studying must be denied. We should 
therefore use every possible care to guard against 
such misfortune. The following suggestions may 
aid one in preserving good eyesight : 

Do not read by twilight. 

Do not use the eyes when they feel tired. 

The light should be clear and steady ; neither dim 
nor very strong. 

Never look directly at the sun nor at a brilliant 
light, 

Do not read when lying down ; the upright posi- 
tion is the natural and proper one. 

Do not read when riding in the cars or in a car- 
riage, or while walking. The eyes become quickly 
tired from the irregular muscular action. 

Do not look too long at any one thing. Rest 
the eyes by looking around at frequent intervals. 

Squinting may result in serious trouble, as it strains 
some of the muscles of the eye. 

Do not face the light when reading in the even- 
ing. Put a shade on the lamp, and let the light 
come from over the shoulder. 

Do not allow strong sunlight to fall on the eyes 
upon first awaking in the morning. 



158 A HEALTHY BODY 

A book should be held at twelve to sixteen 
inches from the eye when reading. 

Have any object that may have fallen into the eye 
removed as quickly as possible. 

Never rub the eyes to remove dust or dirt. These 
may be removed by carefully wiping the eye with 
a folded corner of a soft handkerchief. 

Avoid reading and studying if the eyes are 
inflamed. 

Never use ointments or eye-washes without the 
advice of your physician. 

Alcohol and the Eyes. — The bleared eyes of the 
hard drinker are one of the tell-tales of his habits. 
The blood vessels are filled to their utmost with 
blood, making the eyes look blood-shot. This con- 
dition is likely to continue as long as alcohol is 
taken. If its use is stopped, under proper treatment 
the inflammation may be relieved or entirely cured. 

Tobacco and the Eyes. — The smoke of burning 
tobacco is very irritating to the eyes, and red edges 
to the eyelids are often seen among smokers. In 
serious cases of this trouble arising from the use of 
tobacco there are sharp pains .in the eyeballs, and 
the sight is greatly affected. 

When the children complain of constant head- 
ache, especially if there is pain in the eyes as well, 
an oculist or physician should be consulted in order 
to determine whether there may not be some trouble 
with the eyes requiring the use of glasses. 



CHAPTER XXVII 
THE SENSE OF TASTE 

The sense of taste is made possible to us largely 
by means of the tongue. The lining membranes of 
other portions of the mouth may have something to 
do with it, but it is principally due to the mem- 
brane on the upper surface of the tongue. 

The Tongue. — The tongue, which is composed of 
voluntary muscle, is easily moved in any direction. 
When the body is in a healthy condition, the tongue 
is moist and of a light red color. A dry tongue 
denotes fever, while a furred tongue is pretty sure 
evidence of some disturbance of the digestive organs ; 
a bright red tongue also is a symptom of disease. 
Therefore by the appearance of the tongue the phy- 
sician can learn something of the condition of his 
patient. 

The healthy tongue is covered, on its upper sur- 
face, with minute elevations, called papillae. The 
largest of these are found on the back part of the 
tongue. They are arranged like the letter V, with the 
point of the V toward the back (Fig. 51). Other 
and smaller papillae are easily seen, scattered over 
the tongue. Some of these papillae act as organs of 



160 



A HEALTHY BODY 



touch, for the tongue has the sense of touch just as 
the skin has. Other papillae act as taste organs, and 
are connected with the brain by means of nerves. 

We cannot taste any substance until it is dis- 
solved. If dry sugar is placed on a dry tongue, 

the sugar cannot be 
tasted at all. The saliva 
aids in dissolving the sub- 
stance we taste, and the 
movements of the tongue 
spread the substance over 
its surface. 

Smell and Taste. — The 
sense of smell frequently 
confuses the sense of 
taste. We think we taste 
a thing when really it is 
the odor which is the 
more prominent. In tak- 
ing medicine that we 
dislike because of its 




Fig. 51. — The tongue, showing 



the varieties of papillae. 

unpleasant taste, we often 
find that if we close the nose we can take the med- 
icine without trouble. In this case it is the odor we 
need to get rid of rather than the taste. 

Flavors. — If the eyes and the nose are closed, the 
taste of an onion may be mistaken for that of some 
pleasant fruit. 

We may become so accustomed to the taste of 



THE SENSE OF TASTE 161 

certain articles of food as to think them very agree- 
able, although at first they were very disagreeable 
to us. Many persons who at first dislike the taste 
of tomatoes or olives, or even oysters, soon learn 
to like them very much. 

Only one flavor can be appreciated at a time. If 
more than one is tried at a time, the result is a con- 
fused taste. A strong flavor may so affect the taste 
organs that a weaker flavor may immediately follow 
it without being noticed. Advantage is often taken 
of this in giving medicine. A strongly flavored 
fluid is taken into the mouth, and immediately after- 
wards the disagreeable dose is swallowed, followed 
by more of the strong flavor first used. 

The practice of eating cloves and other spices is 
a very harmful one, as it is likely to destroy the 
sense of taste and seriously disturb the action of the 
stomach. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 
THE SENSES OF SMELL AND TOUCH 

The Sense of Smell. — When certain substances are 
brought near the nose they produce a peculiar sen- 
sation which we call an odor. 

The sense of smell is of great service to us in 
many ways. When we are conscious of any bad 
smell in the air, we know that it is unfit to breathe ; 
when food has a tainted odor, it should not be eaten. 
Many of the disagreeable odors come from substances 
that are harmful to the body, while agreeable odors 
come from substances that are frequently not only 
pleasant, but healthful also. 

Some odors may be carried for a long distance. 
It is said that persons on board vessels at sea have 
detected the odor of cinnamon growing on a shore 
over two hundred miles away. 

The Sense of Touch. — The sense of touch resides 
principally in the skin, and in the mucous mem- 
branes of the nose, mouth and throat. It may seem 
to us most natural that we should feel anything we 
can touch. But this sense of touch is not so simple. 
We owe it to sensory nerves found in the papillae, 
which we have already located in the outer skin. 



THE SENSES OF SMELL AND TOUCH 163 

These papillae are found in greatest numbers on 
the tips of the fingers. In each one of them is a 
fine little sensory nerve that transmits its story 
whenever it is touched. 

Acuteness of Sensation. — We may easily discover 
for ourselves which parts of the body are the most 
sensitive. Take two pins and hold their points 
at least an inch apart. Press them lightly against 
the skin on the back of the wrist of another per- 
son, being careful that both points come in contact 
with the skin at the same time. Repeat the ex- 
periment, bringing the pins a trifle nearer together 
each time. Soon the sensation will be as if only 
one point were touching the skin. Note now 
how near together the points are. Try the same 
experiment on the inside of the first finger. It 
will be found that the points may be brought much 
nearer together before the two points will be felt as 
one, — which shows that the sense of touch is much 
more delicate at this place. 

The Education of Touch. — The sense of touch may 
be highly developed. Blind persons can read very 
rapidly by passing the fingers over the pages of 
raised letters ; their sense of touch is so delicate 
that the form of the slightly raised letter is made 
very clear to them. 

The Sense of Temperature. — Whenever our bodies 
come in contact with a substance, we are able to 
tell whether it is hot or cold. This is because we 



164 A HEALTHY BODY 

are in possession of a sense called the " temperature 
sense." This sense is situated in the skin, and in 
the delicate mucous membranes, like those of the 
mouth, the throat, and the nose. The temperature 
sense, like the muscle sense described below, is 
sometimes classed as a distinct sense, and sometimes 
as a particular form of the sense of touch. 

The Muscle Sense. — The muscle sense tells us 
how strongly our muscles contract. As the mus- 
cles must contract more strongly in order to lift 
a heavy object than a light one, so this muscle 
sense enables us to judge of the differences in the 
weight of bodies. The muscle sense resides in cer- 
tain nerves which are present in all parts of the body. 

Feelers. — Many of the lower animals are provided 
with "feelers," in order that they may detect 
an object near them. The whiskers of the cat are 
probably for this purpose. The skin of that animal 
is so covered with hair that it can be of but little use 
as an organ of touch ; therefore Nature has given 
it a few very long hairs, called "feelers." These 
feelers are fastened deep in the skin, and are 
attached to nerves which convey impressions directly 
to the brain. 



CHAPTER XXIX 
THE SENSE OF HEARING 

The organs of hearing are among the most diffi- 
cult parts of the body to understand. We see only 
the outer ear, but there are two other parts — the 
middle ear and the inner ear. Study Fig. 52. 

The Outer Ear. — The outer ear is the peculiarly 
shaped piece of cartilage on the side of the head 
by means of which we catch sound waves. This is 
very easily seen to be true of the lower animals : 
they always turn their ears in the direction from 
which the sounds come. Even man is governed 
by the same principle, and when his hearing is 
not acute he will place his hand behind his ear 
and push it forward, at the same time making the 
sound-catching surface larger by adding to it the 
width of his hand. The auditory canal, which is a 
part of the outer ear, and leads to the middle ear, is 
about an inch in length. 

The Middle Ear. — At the farther end of this canal 
is a thin membrane, the drumhead ; on the inner 
side of this membrane is the cavity of the middle ear, 
which is filled with air, and is connected with the 
throat by means of a canal called the Eustachian 



166 



A HEALTHY BODY 



tube. Through this tube air is admitted into the 
drum. 

The drumhead completely separates the outer 
and middle ears. When sound waves strike the 
drumhead, they cause it to vibrate, — much as the 




Fig. 52. — The ear: (C) the auditory canal, that leads to the middle ear; 
(M) the middle ear. The drum-head is the curved white line to the 
left of the letter M; (I) the inner ear; (N) the nerve of hearing, going 
to the brain ; (T) the tube leading from the middle ear to the upper 
part of the throat. 



head of an ordinary drum does when struck. This 
vibration shakes the three small bones that are 
found in the middle ear. They in turn transmit the 
vibration to the inner ear. 

The Inner Ear. — The inner ear contains the nerve 
of hearing, called the auditory nerve, which conveys 
the nervous impulse to the brain. This part of the 



THE SENSE OF HEARING 167 

ear is carefully protected by being placed within a 
solid bone. 

Causes of Deafness. — We have spoken of a passage 
leading from the middle ear to the throat. We can 
understand now how it is that throat diseases often 
cause deafness, for the inflammation may readily ex- 
tend from the throat along the Eustachian tube 
until it reaches the middle ear and affects it. 

Blows on the ears are always dangerous, and may 
cause sudden and permanent deafness. Cold air, 
blowing into the ear will cause an inflammation 
which will affect the hearing. Shouting or speak- 
ing loudly in the ear often affects the hearing. 
Should an insect get into the ear, have a com- 
petent person gently pour in a little sweet oil; 
this will either kill the insect or drive it out. 

Ear Wax. — Certain glands, situated just within 
the entrance of the outer ear, secrete a substance 
called ear wax. This wax is for the purpose of pre- 
venting the entrance of insects, and for catching the 
dust that is in the air, thereby protecting more 
delicate parts of the ear within. The frequent use 
of a pin, a hair pin, the end of a pencil, or other 
hard instrument, in endeavoring to remove this wax ? 
is most unwise, and is often a cause of deafness. 
The wax is easily removed by simply twisting the 
corner of a towel, lightly moistened„with water, and 
wiping out the ear, 



CHAPTER XXX 
THE EFFECTS OF OPIUM 

Opium is made from the juice of a plant called the 
white poppy, which is largely grown in India and 
China. Cuts are made in certain parts of the plant, 
from which a white, milky juice escapes. This is 
allowed to dry, when it is gathered as a brown, 
thick gum. This gum is opium. From opium are 
made such drugs as morphine, laudanum, and pare- 
goric. 

How the Habit is Formed. — In this country, as a 
rule, opium is first taken, by the advice of the phy- 
sician, to relieve pain. If the pain returns as soon 
as the effects of the drug have passed off, another 
dose is taken, so that if the pain continues for 
weeks, and the use of the opium is continued also, 
the habit is formed, and the drug is taken long 
after all necessity for it has passed away. 

Its Effects. — Opium does not make its victim wild 
and uncontrollable, as alcohol often does ; therefore 
its first effects do not show as plainly as those of 
alcohol. Men become stupid under its use, and 
gradually pass into a deep, heavy sleep. 

This deadly drug takes away the appetite, im- 



THE EFFECTS OF OPIUM 169 

pairs digestion, interferes with the action of all the 
organs of the body, and powerfully affects the will. 
The opium eater will sacrifice anything to get his 
favorite drug. He loses all sense of honor and 
truth, and nothing is too valuable for him to 
part with, if only it will procure him his favorite 
drug. 

None Escape. — No one who uses opium escapes its 
bad effects. It appears to affect all alike, weaken- 
ing both body and mind. Some people foolishly 
imagine that they can use alcohol in moderate quan- 
tities without suffering its ill effects. We have seen 
that this is impossible. In the use of opium there 
is no such thing as "moderation." The fearful 
craving for the drug leads its victim on to greater 
and greater excesses. 

The Physician can Detect the Opium Habit. — Its ef- 
fects on the body — as shown by the listless eye, the 
stooping figure, and the discolored skin — enable the 
trained eye of the physician to detect the opium 
user with almost unfailing accuracy. 

Its Terrible Power. — The power of opium to injure 
the body is terrible enough ; but when we consider 
that it will weaken and break down the higher part 
of our natures, even our sense of right and wrong, 
then we wonder how anybody of sane mind can 
allow himself to become a victim to its use. 



CHAPTER XXXI 
TEA, COFFEE, TOBACCO 

Tea and Coffee. — The value of tea and coffee is 
doubted by many wise physicians. It is certain 
that all young people would be a great deal better 
off without them. 

Bad Effects.— If the coffee be taken late in the day, 
it is likely to prevent sleep; and the use of strong 
tea continued for a long time is likely to cause 
nervousness and dyspepsia. 

Neither strong tea nor coffee can be used for any 
length of time in large quantities without bad 
effects on the system. Their use by the young is 
likely to cause stomach troubles, headaches, nervous- 
ness and wakefulness. 

History of Tobacco. — When Columbus, in 1492, 
landed on the island of Hayti, he sent out his 
men in all directions to see what they could find 
in the new country. In a short time some of them 
returned to the ship and told him that they had 
seen men who appeared to follow a very singular 
practice. They carried tubes in their mouths, into 
which they would put some kind of weed, and 
setting fire to this, they would blow the smoke 
through their mouths and nostrils. 



TEA, COFFEE, TOBACCO 171 

Its Introduction Abroad. — In the year 1587 Sir 
Walter Raleigh sent a company of men to Virginia. 
When they returned they brought to him two 
vegetables, — the potato, and tobacco. Sir Walter 
procured a pipe, tried the tobacco, and soon became 
very fond of it ; but for some reason he kept his use 
of it a secret. 

Efforts to Stop Its Use. — Soon tobacco was being 
used to a large extent, and many of the wisest men 
of England feared some of the evils that have re- 
sulted from the use of such a powerful drug. James 
I., who was then king, therefore caused a heavy 
tax to be placed on tobacco, trying thus to limit its 
cultivation. He even wrote a book on its use, in 
which he said that smoking was a practice "loath- 
some to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the 
brain, and dangerous to the lungs." A little later 
the Russian Government tried to prevent smoking, 
with the penalty of the loss of the nose if a person 
were caught using tobacco ; and the Sultan of Tur- 
key punished with death all smokers and snuff takers. 
But the rulers of that day soon found that all they 
could say or do did not check the practice, which 
was steadily on the increase ; so they contented 
themselves with levying a tax, thus enriching them- 
selves at the expense of those who persisted in the 
use of tobacco. 

Nicotine. — The poisonous snbstance in tobacco is 
called nicotine. An English writer on poisons, 



172 A HEALTHY BODY 

Wynter Blythe, says : " Poisoning by nicotine pure 
and simple is rare. Tobacco poisoning is very com- 
mon and has probably been experienced in a mild 
degree by every smoker in first acquiring the habit. 
Children have been poisoned from playing with old 
pipes. A three year old child once blew soap bub- 
bles for an hour with an old tobacco pipe. Soon 
after symptoms of poisoning set in and in three days 
the child died." Tobacco is so injurious to insect life 
that it is used in various forms as a liquid, smoke, 
or powder to destroy insect pests. 

Effects on Vegetables.— Tobacco seems also to de- 
stroy all forms of vegetable life. If plants be placed 
in a room in which there is a strong odor of tobacco, 
as in tobacco factories, or in tobacco drying-rooms, 
they will gradually droop and die. 

The General Verdict. — The general testimony is that 
nicotine is one of the most deadly poisons to all 
forms of animal and vegetable life, and also that it 
is the presence of this poison in tobacco that gives 
it its power over those who use it. 

Its First Effects. — The first use of tobacco almost in- 
variably causes sickness. The healthy body feels 
its effects most keenly, and extreme weakness, nau- 
sea, and vomiting follow. If its use be continued, 
however, these acute symptoms disappear ; but the 
tobacco still has its effect on the user, though this is 
less violent and so less evident. 

Its Effects on the Young. — The effects on the body of 



TEA, COFFEE, TOBACCO 173 

the adult vary greatly, according to the individual, 
his habits of life, etc. It is certainly true that to- 
bacco has a much more severe effect on some than 
on others. It may be laid down as a rule, from 
which there is scarcely an exception, that its effects 
on all who use it before the body reaches its ma- 
turity, as it does at about twenty-five years of age, 
are bad; while if its use is begun earlier in life, 
at ten or twelve years, the effects are much more 
serious. As a rule, the younger the person using 
tobacco, the more active will its effects be. 

Especially Bad for Boys.— Other things being equal, 
a boy who smokes or chews tobacco before he is 
twelve or fourteen years of age must expect to be 
shorter in stature, weaker in muscle, and to show 
less fitness in his studies than his companion who 
does neither. 

Tobacco tends to interfere with systematic and 
orderly habits, and to dispose to slovenliness. It 
lowers the value of a boy's work so much that busi- 
ness men very generally choose boys who do not 
smoke to fill positions in their employment 

Wise Laws. — The effect of tobacco on the boys in 
the public schools in Paris was shown by their pale 
faces, weak muscles, imperfect circulation of the 
blood, and continued poor recitations. On account 
of this, the Minister of Public Instruction issued an 
order forbidding its use by the students. 

Some of the earlier laws of New England were 



174 A HEALTHY BODY 

wise in this respect. One ordered that do person 
under twenty years of age should use tobacco with- 
out first obtaiuing a certificate from a physician to 
the effect that the tobacco would be good for him. 

It Shortens Life. — Dr. A. B. Palmer, who was a pro- 
fessor for over thirty years in the Medical College 
of the University of Michigan, said that " boys and 
young men who use tobacco lose one-fifth of the en- 
joyment and value, and at least one-tenth of the 
length, of their lives." 

Exceptions do not Constitute a Rule. — It is nothiDg in 
favor of tobacco that some persons can use it without 
apparent bad effects, any more than it is an argu- 
ment in favor of alcohol that some persons do not 
appear, at first, to be harmed by it. 

General Effects on the Young. — Tobacco lessens the 
Datural appetite for food aud iDJures digestion. It 
irritates the mouth aud throat, and frequently causes 
the voice to become husky and coarse. It makes 
the body restless and nervous, causing a peculiar 
sinking sensation at the stomach, which strongly 
tempts the smoker to try the , effects of some alco- 
holic drink. It often causes the sisrht to become 
weak, and gives rise to ringing, buzziug noises in 
the ears. It affects the action of the heart, making 
it beat unsteadily, and leads to dizziness and rushing 
of blood to the head. It often disturbs the sleep 
with distressing dreams. 



CHAPTER XXXII 
LONG LIFE 

It is a fact that those who never use alcoholic 
drinks in any form, have a prospect of living longer 
than those who do use them. Without doubt, 
some diseases are caused by alcohol, and many 
diseases are made worse by it. If a person has "ed 
a temperate life he will be more likely to recover 
from a severe illness than one who has been intem- 
perate. 

Insurance companies that keep the accounts of 
abstainers in a separate section from the others find 
that abstainers live longer than moderate drinkers. 
Twelve presidents of American life insurance com- 
panies have testified that the use of intoxicating 
drinks tends greatly to shorten life. 

The claim often made that some persons who 
use intoxicating liquors live to be old, is no argument 
in favor of alcohol. How do we know that those 
same people would not have lived longer, and done 
better work in the world if they had never taken 
alcoholic drinks ? A man may claim that he has 
drunk whiskey all his life, and yet is in a good state 
of health. Such may be the case ; but to understand 



176 A HEALTHY BODY 

the full effect of his habit one must consider his 
children. Of all the effects of alcohol, none are 
more deplorable than the suffering of children for 
the drinking habits of their parents. When both 
parents indulge freely in the use of alcoholic drinks, 
there is little chance that their children will escape 
inheriting a weak, nervous system. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

THE CIGARETTE AND THE COMING BUSINESS MAN 

There are many reasons why all boys who wish 
to become successful men should refuse to smoke 
cigarettes. See how many good reasons you can 
name in addition to the following: 

1. Cigarette Smoking Lessens the Natural Appetite 
for Food and Injures Digestion. — Any close observer 
will know at once how true this statement is. The 
boy who smokes has a bad digestion and a poor 
appetite. As a result the food is not properly 
digested and the growth and development of the 
body is seriously interfered with by this early 
poisoning. 

2. It Seriously Affects the Nervous System. — The 
rush of blood to the head, the dizziness, the unsteady 
beating of the heart, the distressing dreams — all 
show that the nervous system has been greatly 
disturbed. 

More serious still is the effect on the nervous sys- 
tem, which produces marked changes in the mental 
activity. Reports from the University of Michigan, 
Northwestern University, Yale University and 
Union College, together with scores of other institu- 



178 A HEALTHY BODY 

tions and hundreds of the most eminent teachers of 
the country, all testify to the fact that cigarette 
smoking interferes with scholarship. If it interferes 
with the scholarship of young men over twenty-one 
years of age, how much more seriously must it 
interfere with the mental activities of those under 
this age ! 

3. It Lowers the Moral Tone Another most seri- 
ous charge against the cigarette is that it lowers the 
moral tone. Boys who would not tell a lie on any 
other matter, do not seem to hesitate a moment to 
tell any kind of a falsehood in order to keep from 
their parents the fact that they are smoking ciga- 
rettes. They conceal the truth, smoke away from 
home, and try in every way to deceive those who 
are nearest and dearest to them. 

4. It Creates a Craving for Strong Drink. — The hot 
smoke from the cigarette tends to make the mouth 
and throat dry and creates a peculiar sinking sensa- 
tion in the stomach. Water may temporarily relieve 
this dryness and may temporarily check the sinking 
sensation. But with the moral tone lowered and the 
mental power weakened, the tendency to yield to 
the first temptation is strengthened, because of the 
flimsy excuse that the boy must have something to 
wet his throat. And so the boy who smokes more 
easily accepts an invitation to a treat than one who 
does not smoke. 

5. It is Expensive. — Money will purchase so many 



THE CIGARETTE AND THE COMING BUSINESS MAN 179 

valuable things, that it seems foolish to squander 
it on tobacco, which is worse than useless. 

6. It is Unlawful. — In nearly every State in the 
Union there are stringent laws forbidding the fur- 
nishing of cigarettes or tobacco to minors under a 
certain age. In most of these States there are laws 
against selling to such minors. Take the District of 
Columbia, the home of our nation, and we find that 
257 physicians, 524 officers and teachers of the pub- 
lic schools, and the trustees of the public schools, 
and 86 pastors of churches petitioned Congress for 
the passage of a bill prohibiting the selling, giving, 
or furnishing tobacco to any person under sixteen 
years of age. 

The reasons why these people wished to protect 
boys in this way are : Tobacco makes boys lazy and 
dull. Close observation for many years has shown 
that those who are most energetic, active, alert, and 
quick, do not smoke; while the listless, lazy, dull, 
sleepy, uninteresting and uninterested boys are those 
who smoke. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 
BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 

The knowledge we have acquired of anatomy, 
physiology, and hygiene sho.uld be of great assist- 
ance to us in times of emergency, when an 
accident renders it necessary that something should 
be done at once. To wait idly until the doctor 
comes may cost a life, while prompt and proper 
action will often greatly aid him, and may prevent 
a fatal termination to the accident. Some per- 
sons feel that they must do something, no matter 
what, but flurry often increases the danger, while 
a little cool judgment might greatly lessen it. To 
know what to do, and when to do it, is a great 
deal. 

When calling a physician, always inform him of 
the nature of the accident, that he may bring with 
him all necessary appliances and remedies. Examine 
an injured person with great care, as rough handling 
may open a wound which has ceased bleeding, 
making it bleed afresh, or the rough handling 
may cause a broken bone to injure some of the soft 
tissues. Always give injured persons plenty of 
fresh air. Do not crowd about unless you can be 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 181 

of use. Only those who can assist should stand 
near an injured man, or even remain in the same 
room. 

Accidents. — A little court plaster, or surgeons' 
plaster, is a very convenient thing to have at hand 
when slight accidents occur. If the skin is broken 
or scraped, clean it thoroughly with water, dry it 
with a clean cloth, and place a small piece of adhe- 
sive plaster over the wound. This will greatly 
hasten the healing. When the skin has been cut 
through with a knife, or other sharp instrument, the 
cut should be cleansed and then the edges of the 
wound should be drawn closely together and held 
in place by strips of plaster. 

Bandages. — -A bandage is usually made by tearing 
a piece of cloth into strips, the width depending 
upon the part to be bandaged. For the finger, the 
strip should not be over three-fourths of an inch 
wide ; for the arm or leg the strip may be two 
inches wide. To apply a bandage properly requires 
experience. It is w^ell for boys and girls to practice 
with different forms of bandages, as the class in the 
illustration, page 182, are learning to do. Eemem- 
ber that the bandage should always be wound around 
the part as smoothly and evenly as possible. Do 
not put on a bandage that is wet, for when it 
dries it will shrink and pinch the part too tightly. 
In winding a bandage always begin below the 
injured part and wind toward it. A bandage 



182 



A HEALTHY BODY 



should be neither too tight nor too loose, but just 
snug, and wound as smooth as possible. 

Bleeding. — Nothing is more alarming to some peo- 
ple than the sight of flowing blood. To check it 
often requires prompt action ; promptness may save 




Pupils Receiving Instruction in Applying Bandages 



a life. Do not try to stop the bleeding by tying 
great quantities of clothing around the injured parts ; 
it will soak up the blood, while the bleeding may 
continue beneath. If the blood comes from an artery 
it will flow in jets or spurts ; but if it arises from a 
vein, the stream will be a steady one. If the bleed- 
ing comes from the surface of the body, it may gen- 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 183 

erally be checked by pressure. This may be applied 
with the fingers ; or if the wound is on the surface 
over a bone, a piece of cloth may be folded so as to 
make a small pad and held tightly pressed to the 
wound by a bandage. When the bleeding is slight 
frequent aj3plications of cold water bandages will 
stop the flow. 

Nosebleed. — Bleeding from the nose is very com- 
mon and is usually not at all dangerous. It gener- 
ally stops soon, without any treatment, but if neces- 
sary it may be checked by applying cold water to 
the forehead, over the nose, and at the back of the 
neck. One should also sit quietly and rest for a 
short time. When the blood clots in the nose, do 
not blow the clot out, but allow it to remain for a 
few hours. A severe case of nosebleed can often be 
stopped by placing the hands and feet in water as 
hot as can be borne. 

A fall or a blow may cause nosebleed, but it is 
most frequently due to the bad habit some children 
have of picking the nose. The finger nail causes a 
slight break in the delicate membrane in the nose, 
this does not heal, and some time, when more blood 
than usual goes to the head, the nose bleeds. 

Burns and Scalds. — Great relief will be given 
in cases of burns or scalds by covering them with 
soft linen or cotton cloth that is saturated with a 
solution of common soda. Put a tablespoon ful of 
common soda in a cup of water and stir thoroughly. 



184 A HEALTHY BODY 

Wet the cloth in this water, and place it upon the 
injured parts. This will generally relieve the sting 
and ache of the burn. For a severe burn use 
instead a thin paste made by rubbing some common 
baking soda into vaseline, or any simple form of 
ointment. If none of these are at hand, then try 
cream, or linseed oil, or even ordinary machine oil. 
A liniment of equal parts of sweet oil and lime 
water is very useful. 

Choking. — Usually choking would be prevented 
if we eat slowly and chewed our food thoroughly. 
Sometimes when a mass of food or a bone is only 
partly swallowed, it causes a distressing cough or 
great difficulty in breathing. The common practice 
of slapping the person between the shoulders often 
helps dislodge the substances from the windpipe. 
It is frequently possible to aid in removing a foreign 
body from the throat by lifting the person by the 
heels, and slapping him between the shoulders while 
in this position. 

Dizziness. — Young people often have attacks of 
dizziness, brought about by some unusual and tax- 
ing form of play, such as rolling down hill, swinging 
around in a circle, or hanging from the edge of a 
wall. It is much better to avoid such plays, as 
they may be injurious. Dizziness also comes from 
some disturbances of the stomach, caused often by 
overheating, or by eating over-ripe or unripe fruit. 
If the stomach is relieved by vomiting the dizziness 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 



185 




Removing Water from Lungs 



soon passes away. 
When an attack 
of dizziness comes 
from some simple 
cause, it will soon 
pass away if one 
lies down and 
keeps very quiet. 
If the dizziness 
should continue 
for some days it 

may be the beginning of an illness, and a physician 

should be consulted. 

Drowning. — In cases of apparent drowning it is 

important that the person should have immediate 

attention. Every moment counts. A physician 

should be summoned at once, but meantime there 

is much that even a child can do. The first thing 

is to remove the 

water from the 

lungs ; this may 

be done by catch- 
ing the body 

around the waist 

and holding it, 

head down, first 

pulling the tongue 

forward so that 

it shall not fall First Position — Artificial Inspiration 




186 



A HEALTHY BODY 




Second Position 



back into the 
throat. Sometimes 
the body is rolled 
on a barrel, head 
down. Less than 
a minnte should 
be given to this 
first step. 

Then, if the 
physician has not 
yet arrived, arti- 
ficial respiration should be tried. One of the sim- 
plest methods is that shown in the accompanying 
illustrations. The motions are as follows: Place 
the person on the back with a roll of clothing under 
the shoulders; kneel at the head, grasp the patient's 
arms at the elbows, draw them slowly over his 
head and hold them there long enough to count 
four slowly. This 
raises the chest 
walls and allows 
the air to rush 
iuto the lungs. 
Then push the 
arms down against 
the chest, bringing 
the forearms close 
together, and hold 

the arms in that Third Position— Artificial Expiration 




BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 187 

position long enough to count four again. This 
movement diminishes the size of the chest and 
forces the air out. Then repeat these movements. 
They should be continued, if necessary, for an 
hour or an hour and a half before the case is 
abandoned. Look out for the tongue, which often 
falls back into the throat and prevents the passage 
of air into the lungs. It may be necessary to have 
some one draw the tongue out of the mouth and 
hold it with a dry handkerchief. 

While this treatment is being given, the lower 
part of the body should be covered with blankets 
or any warm clothing that can be secured, and hot 
water bottles applied to the feet and legs. 

Fainting. — A person faints because, for some rea- 
son, there is not the usual amount of blood going 
to the brain. The treatment, therefore, should be 
to place the fainting person in such a position as to 
increase the amount of blood flowing to the brain. 
He should be placed at once on his back, with the 
head as low as the body, and should not be raised 
until he has fully recovered. This should be done 
so that the blood may flow readily through the 
brain. To keep the head raised high, or to maintain 
the body in the erect posture, may cause a fatal 
termination to the attack. Dashing a small quan- 
tity of water on the face, and holding an open bottle 
of ammonia near the nose, will perhaps aid. All 
clothing about the neck should be loosened. Never 



188 A HEALTHY BODY 

give brandy or any form of alcohol in such cases ; 
a cup of hot coffee, given as soon as the patient can 
swallow readily, is much better. 

Fire. — When the clothing takes fire, fatal results 
may occur in a short time. If we see a person on 
fire we should instantly grasp the nearest rug, 
shawl, blanket, large cloak, or heavy curtain, and 
wrap it tightly about his body. After that is 
dene, it is wise to roll him on the ground, and this 
with the blankets, will be likely to smother the 
flames. If no blankets are at hand, then the simple 
rolling on the ground may put out the fire. If you 
ever meet with such an accident, yonr first impulse 
may be to run around the house or into the street. 
But do not do this ; for the result is usually fatal. 
In case you are alone at the moment, catch some- 
thing to smother the flames, as already directed, lie 
down, and roll over and over. 

Fractures and Dislocations. — If a bone is broken or 
thrown out of joint, or if this is thought to be the 
case, the injured part should be kept perfectly 
quiet, and the patient made as comfortable as pos- 
sible. It is better to wait a few hours for the physi- 
cian to come, than to attempt to set a broken bone, 
or to handle the injured parts to learn what the 
matter is. 

Intoxication. — When insensibility arises from in- 
toxication it is a more difficult matter to restore 
consciousness. As a rule, very vigorous measures 



BEFORE THE DOCTOR COMES 189 

are not successful, and are often harmful. It is 
usually better to leave nature alone in such 
cases. 

Poisons. — Whenever it is feared that poison has 
been swallowed, it is safest not to wait until the 
doctor comes, but to cause vomiting at once, and 
thus get the poison out of the stomach before it is 
all absorbed. Vomiting is easily caused by giving 
the patient a large cupful of warm water in w r hich 
there has been thoroughly mixed a dessert-spoonful 
of ground mustard. If this does not cause vomiting 
in a few minutes, the dose may be repeated. A 
tablespoonful of alum dissolved in a pint of warm 
water taken at once may be effective. Aid the 
drugs by thrusting the finger down the throat. 
After the vomiting it is best to give a glass of milk 
to which the w^ell beaten whites of two eggs have 
been added. 

Shock. — Sometimes persons become insensible in 
consequence of a blow, or through fright, or from a 
fall; and yet none of these causes may be severe 
enough to injure any organs or tissues. As a rule 
it is only necessary to place the person on his back 
and give him plenty of fresh air. If the head is 
hot, a cloth moistened with cold water may be 
applied to it. 

Sprains. — Sprains are oftentimes of a serious na- 
ture. Recovery from them is usually slow, and 
sometimes the joint is left stiff. Sprains should be 



190 A HEALTHY BODY 

bathed in either hot or cold water, whichever gives 
the greater relief. 

Sunstroke. — In cases of sunstroke the skin and head 
are usually very hot, and there may be partial or 
complete unconsciousness. Remove the patient to 
a cool place, lay him on his back, with the head 
slightly raised, apply cold cloths or ice to the 
head, at the same time bathing the face and head 
with cold water. Do not neglect to send for a 
physician at once. 



INDEX 



Absoebents, 115. 
Absorption, 81, 84. 

by the lacteals, 82. 

by the lymphatics, 82. 

by the small intestine, 81. 

by the stomach, 81. 
Accidents, 181. 
Adam's Apple, 104. 
Air, composition of, 88. 

expired, 108. 

how changed by breathing, 
108. 
Air cells, 105. 
Air sacs, 105. 
Albumen, 5. 
Alcohol, 21. 

a fat producer, 43, 61. 

as a poison, 21. 

authorities on use of, 149. 

change in cerebrum by, 148. 

deceptive effects of, 42, 144. 

delirium tremens, 149. 

"fatty heart" due to, 61. 

hinders recovery, 175. 

how formed, 22. 

in fermented liquors, 31. 

moral results of, 28, 102, 149. 

narcotic effect of, 145. 

not a food, 60. 

oxidization of, 60. 

retards digestion, 76. 

self-control weakened by, 29. 



Alcohol, effect of, on — 

character, 29. 

muscular strength, 42. 

sight, 158. 

voluntary activities, 147. 
effect of, on the — 

arteries, 101. 

blood-vessels, 102. 

brain, 147. 

circulation, 100. 

digestion, 76. 

heart, 100. 

kidneys, 119. 

lungs, 111. 

mind, 150. 

mucous membrane, 76. 

muscles, 41. 

nerve cells, 148. 

nervous system, 144. 

spinal cord, 146. 

stomach, 76. 

temperature of the body, 133. 
Alcohol in beer, 25. 

in cider, 23. 

in vinegar, 26. 

in wine, 24. 
Alcohol, sources of 

fruits, 22. 

grains, 25. 
Alcoholic appetite, 27. 

formed by beer, 26; cider, 24. 

growth of, '25, 27, 78. 



192 



INDEX 



Alcoholic appetite, hereditary ef- 
fect of, 176. 

rapidity of growth of, 29. 

whom it will affect, 29. 
Alcoholic drinks, 21. 

danger of, 21, 27. 
Alcoholic fermentation, 22, 23, 
24. 

self- destructive, 25. 
Animal matter in bone, 9. 
Antidotes to poisons, 189. 
Aorta, 93. 
Appetite, hearty, in children, 59. 

effect of tobacco on, 177. 
Arms, bones of the, 12. 
Arteries, 97. 

effects of alcohol on, 101. 
Auditory nerve, 166. 
Auricles of the heart, 92. 



Backbone, 10. 
Bacteria, 26. 

cause of disease, 67, 115. 

decay in teeth, 65. 
Baker's yeast, 23, 30. 
Bandages, 181. 
Bathe, when not to, 126. 
Bathing, 125. 

cold water, 126. 

its use, 119. 
Beer, 25. 

Biceps muscle, 35. 
Bile, 73. 

how formed, 73. 

importance to digestion, 73. 
Bleeding, how to check, 182. 

from the nose, 183. 

stopped by coagulation, 89. 
Blood, amount of, in body, 85. 



Blood, arterial, 87. 

circulation of, 94. 

clotting of, 89. 

composition of, 85. 

corpuscles in, 86. 

course through the body, 94. 

course through the heart, 
93. 

venous, 87. 
Blood-vessels, 7, 94, 97, 108. 
Body, composition of, 5. 

cells in the, 3. 
Boiling, 56. 
Bone, marrow of, 7. 

protective uses of, 6. 

structure of, 7. 
Bones, 6. 

broken, 9. 

care of the, 15. 

changes in, 9. 

of the arms, 12. 

of the legs, 13. 

of the skull, 10. 

of the spinal column, 10. 

of the trunk, 10, 11, 12. 

uses of the, 6. 
Brain, 135. 

effect of alcohol on, 147. 

weight of, 137. 
Bread, 58. 
Breast-bone, 12. 
Breath, odor of the, 66. 

a sweet, 66. 
Breathing, correct, 110. 

mouth, 110. 

process of, 106. 

results of, 109. 
Broiling, 56. 
Bronchial tubes, 105. 
Burns and scalds, 183. 



INDEX 



193 



Butter, 54. 
Buttermilk, 55. 



Cake, 59. 
Candy, 53. 
Capillaries, 97. 
Carbon dioxide, 23. 

in the blood, 88. 

in the expired air, 108. 
Carotid arteries, 94. 
Cartilage, 10. 
Cells, 1, 2, 3. 

bone, 8. 

composition of, 3. 

in the animal kingdom, 2. 

in the human body, 3. 

in the vegetable kingdom, 2. 

nerve, 135. 

renewal of, in the body, 
62. 

work done by the cells, 3. 
Cerebellum, 138. 
Cerebrum, 136. 

change in, by alcohol, 148. 
Character shown in the face, 38. 
Cheese, 55. 

time of digestion, 70. 
Chest, 104. 

sounds of the, 108. 
Chicken-pox, 127. 
Choking, 184. 
Chyle, 73. 
Chyme, 69. 
Cider, 23. 

yeast plants in, 24. 
Cigarette smoking, 177. 

affects digestion, 177. 

creates alcohol appetite, 178. 

laws governing, 179. 



Circulation, 90. 

effect of alcohol on, 100. 

general plan of, 94. 

how food enters, 84. 

rapidity of, 99. 
Clavicle, 12. 

Cleanliness in preparing food, 60. 
Clothing, 129. 

choice of, 131. 

material for, 132. 

night, 133. 

of animals, 131. 

tight lacing, harmful, 110. 
Clotting of blood, 89. 
Coagulation, 89. 
Coffee, 80, 170. 
Colds, 128. 

causes of, 128. 

to prevent, 129. 
Collar-bone, 12. 
Consumption, germ origin of, 

67. 
Contagion, how carried, 67, 115. 
Contagious diseases, 115. 

affecting the skin, 127. 

spread by germs, 67. 
Contraction of muscles, 35. 

affected by alcohol, 43. 
Cooking, methods of, 56. 

purpose of, 56. 
Corpuscles, lymph, 83. 

red, 86. 

use in the body, 87. 

white, 86. 
Correct positions, 15. 

sitting, 18. 

standing, 15. 

walking, 15. 
Cotton cloth, 132. 



194 



INDEX 



Cuticle, 120. 
Cutis, 120. 



Deafness, 167. 

Delirium Tremens, 149. 

Deodorizers, 114. 

Diaphragm, 90. 

Diet, 59. 

Digested foods, course of, 84. 

Digestion, 62. 

effect of alcohol on, 76. 
opium, 80. 
tea and coffee, 80. 
tobacco, 79, 177. 

cooking necessary to, 56. 

in the intestine, 72. 

in the mouth, 63. 

in the stomach, 68. 

organs of, 62. 

process of digestion, 81, 84. 

to assist. 75. 
Digestion of fatty foods, 84. 

of meats, 84. 

of starchy foods, 84. 
Digestive fluids, 75. 

salt a stimulant of the, 47. 
Diphtheria, germ origin of, 67. 
Diseases, contagious, 115, 127. 

of the skin, 126. 
Disinfectants, 114. 
Dislocations, 188. 
Dizziness, 184. 
Dreams, bad, due to use of 

tobacco, 174. 
Drowning, 185. 
Dyspepsia, 77. 



Ear, care of, 167. 
drum, 165. 



Ear, foreign bodies in, 167. 

inner, 166. 

middle, 165. 

outer, 165. 

wax in, 167. 
Eating, error of rapid, 67. 

hints on, 60. 

purpose of, 62. 
Eczema, 126. 
Eggs, 58. 

value of, as a food, 50. 
Emergencies, 181. 

coolness in, 180. 
Epiglottis, 104. 
Erect form, 15. 
Eustachian tube, 165. 
Excretion, organs of, 75. 
Exercise, 37. 

injurious, 41. 

lung, 110. 

need of, 37. 

when and how to, 40. 
Expiration, 107. 
Expression of the face, 38. 
Eye, 153. 

muscles of the, 155. 

pupil of the, 154. 
Eyeball, 155. 
Eyebrows, 153. 
Eyelashes, 153. 
Eyelids, 153. 
Eyes, care of the, 156. 

effect of alcohol on the, 
158. 
tobacco on the, 158. 



Facial expression, 38. 

Fainting, 187. 

Fat, absorption of, 69, 83, 84. 



INDEX 



195 



Fat, increase of, due to alcohol, 
43, 61. 

process of digesting, 84. 
Feelers, 164. 

Feet, support for the, 18. 
Femur, 6, 13. 
Fermentation, 22. 

a law of, 27. 

alcoholic, 22, 23, 24. 

fundamental changes by, 
26. 

various forms of, 26. 
Ferments, 22, 23, 24. 

destroyed by alcohol, 25. 

in bread-making, 30. 

in various forms, 26. 

origin of, in decay, 27. 
Fibula, 13. 

Fire, clothing on, 188. 
Flavors, 160. 

how detected, 161. 
Food, cleanliness in preparing, 
60. 

definition of, 46. 

for children, 59. 

its uses, 45. 

necessity of, 62. 

process of absorbing, 84. 

process of digesting, 84. 

purpose of, 46. 

selection of, 59. 

varieties of, 44. 
Foods, animal, 50. 

for building and repair, 55. 

for fuel, 45, 55. 

fruit, 53. 

mineral, 46. 

time of digestion of, 70. 

vegetable, 51. 
Fractures, 188. 



Fruits, 53. 
Frying, 57. 
Fuel foods, 55. 

Gall-bladder, 73. 
Gastric juice, 69. 
Germs, 67, 115. 
Glands, gastric, 68. 

lachrymal, 154. 

of the intestine, 75. 

oil, 123, 153. 

pancreatic, 72. 

salivary, 66. 

sweat, 121. 

tear, 154. 



Hair, 123. 

care of, 124. 
Hands, 124. 

Hearing, organ of, 165. 
Heart, 90. 

action of the heart, 95. 

cavities of, 91. 

course of blood through, 93. 

effect of alcohol on, 100. 
tobacco on the, 174. 

"fatty," 61. 

number of beats, 96. 

power of contraction of, 93. 

sounds of the, 96. 

"tobacco," 103. 

valves of the, 94. 
Heat rash, 126. 
Hinge joints, 14. 
Hip joints, 13. 
Hives, 126. 
Hops used in beer, 26. 
Humerus, 12. 
Hunger, 62. 



196 



INDEX 



Ice-water delays digestion, 71. 
Illness, recovery from, retarded 

by alcohol, 175. 
Incorrect positions, 15. 

sitting, 19. 

standing, 16. 
Injuries, assistance for, 180. 
Insensibility, 187. 

due to fainting, 187. 

due to intoxication, 188. 

due to shock, 189. 
Inspiration, 107. 
Intestinal juice, 75. 
Intestine, large, 75. 
Intestine, small, 81. 

absorption, 82. 

digestion in, 69. 
Intestines, 72. 
Iris, 154. 
Itch, 126. 

Jaw, 64. 
Joints, 13. 

ball-and-socket, 14. 

hinge, 14. 

"joint water" for, 13. 

tight and loose, 14. 

uses of, 14. 
Jumping-rope, injuries due to, 41. 

Kidneys, 118. 

effect of alcohol on, 119. 
Knee-cap, 13. 

Lachrymal Gland, 54. 
Lacteals, 82. 

work of, 83. 
Larynx, 104. 
Legs, bones of, 13. 



Ligaments, 13. 
Linen cloth, 132. 
Liver, 73. 

drunkard's, 79. 

effect of alcohol on the, 78. 

work of the, 73. 
Long life, 175. 
Lungs, 105. 

effect of alcohol on, 111. 

effect of tobacco on, 111. 
Lymph corpuscles, 83. 
Lymphatics, 82, 97. 

Manners at the table, 60. 
Marrow of bone, 7. 
Mastication, 63. 
Meats, 50. 

cooked, 56. 

how digested, 84. 

raw, 56. 

time of digestion, 70. 
Medulla oblongata, 138. 
Mental activity, confused by use 
of alcohol, 147. 

affected by tobacco, 173, 179. 
Microscope, 1. 
Milk, 54. 

fermented by bacteria, 27. 
Mind, effect of alcohol on the, 150. 
Mineral matter, in the body, 5. 

in bone, 8. 
Motor nerves, 140. 
Mouth, 67. 

Mucous membrane, effect of al- 
cohol on, 76. 
Mumps, 66. 
Muscle sense, 164. 
Muscles, 32. 

alcoholic effect on, 41. 

contraction of, 35. 



INDEX 



197 



Muscles, education of the, 39. 
exercise of, 38. 
involuntary, 32. 
number of, 32. 
require rest, 41. 
structure of, 34. 
use of, 33. 
voluntary, 32. 



Nails, 125. 
Narcotics, 103, 145. 
Nerve, auditory, 166. 

centers, 140. 

current, 142. 

fibers, 135. 

optic, 156. 
Nerve cells, 135. 

effect of alcohol on, 148. 
Nerves, 140. 

motor, 140. 

sensory, 140. 
Nervous system, 135. 

affected by tobacco, 151, 177. 

affinity of alcohol for, 145. 

effect of alcohol on the, 144. 
Nicotine, 171. 

effect on vegetable life, 172. 
growing boys, 173. 

first effects of, 172. 

poisoning, 171. 
Nitrogen, 88. 
Nose, 162. 
Nose-bleed, 183. 
Nuts as food, 53. 

Oatmeal, a wholesome food, 

51. 
(Esophagus, 68. 
Oil glands, 123, 153. 



Opium, 76, 80, 168. 

effect of, on digestion, 168. 
effect of, on the nervous sys- 
tem, 151. 
how effects of, are detected, 

169. 
loss of moral sense through 

use of, 169. 
power of, 169. 
Optic nerve, 156. 
Oxidization in the body, 45, 60. 
Oxygen, 88. 



Palate, 104. 
Pancreas, 72, 74. 
Pancreatic juice, 75. 
Papillse, 159. 
Pelvis, 13. 
Pepsin, 70. 
Perspiration, 122. 

checking, cause of colds, 123. 
Pharynx, 104. 
Pies, 59. 
Plasma, 85. 
Pleura, 105. 

Pneumonia, germ origin of, 67. 
Poisoning, lead, from water 

pipes, 49. 
Poisons, 189. 
Portal vein, 83. 

55. 
Proteids, building and fuel foods. 

digested in the stomach, 70. 

in animal foods, 50. 

in vegetable foods, 51. 
Pulmonary artery, 87. 
Pulmonary veins, 87. 
Pulse, 96. 
Pupil of the eye, 154. 



108 



INDEX 



Radius, 12. 
Reflex action, 142. 
Relaxation of muscles, 35. 
Respiration, 104, 107. 

artificial, in drowning, 185. 

expiration, 107. 

inspiration, 107. 

organs of, 104. 
Ribs, 11. 
Round shoulders, cause of, 16. 

Saliva, 66. 

use of, 70. 
Salivary glands, 66. 
Salt, 47. 

need and uses of, 47. 
Scalds and burns, 183. 
Scapula, 12. 
Scarlet fever, 127. 
School books, bag for, 20. 

how to carry, 19. 
Sensation, acuteness of, 163. 

deadened by alcohol, 145. 
Sensory nerves, 140. 
Shock, 189. 
Shoes, fitting, 17. 

high heels on, 18. 
Shoulder-blade, 12. 
Sight, effect of tobacco on the, 174. 

organs of, 153. 
Skin, 120. 

sweat glands of, 121. 
Skull, bones of the, 10. 
Sleep, 116. 

prevented by coffee, 170. 

to produce, 117. 
Smallpox, 127. 
Smell, sense of, 162. 
Smoking tobacco affects the 
young, 173, 174, 179. 



Smoking tobacco — 

an expensive habit, 178. 

creates craving for alcohol, 
178. 

destroys the appetite, 177. 
Soups, 58. 

Speech, affected by use of alco- 
hol, 147. 

imperfections of, 67. 
Spinal cord, 139. 

effect of alcohol on the, 146. 

how protected, 11. 

spleen, 75. 
Spinal column, 10. 
Spitting, evil effects of, 67. 
Sprains, 13, 189. 
Stand, how to, 17. 
Starch, 2. 

changed to sugar, 71, 75. 

in vegetable foods, 51. 
Starchy foods, 58. 

absorption of, 69, 84. 

digestion of, 84. 
Sternum, 12. 
Stimulant, 103. 
Stomach, 68. 

digestion in, 69. 

effect of alcohol on, 76. 
Stooping, 16. 

Study a healthful exercise, 142. 
Sugar, 53. 
Sunstroke, 190. 
Sweat glands, 121. 
Sympathetic system, 143. 

Table Manners, 60. 
Taste, organs of, 159. 
Tea, 170. 

effect of, on digestion, 80. 
Tear glands, 154. 



INDEX 



199 



Teeth, 63. 

care of, 64. 

decay of, 65. 

milk, 63. 

permanent, 63. 

structure of, 65. 

toothache, 66. 
Temperature of body, 128. 

effect of alcohol on, 133. 

sense of, 163. 
Tendons, 33. 
Thigh bone, 6. 
Thirst, 62. 
Thoracic duct, 83. 
Throat, 104. 

effect of alcohol on, 111. 

effect of tobacco on, 111. 
Tibia, 13. 

Tissue building, 62. 
Tobacco, 76, 170. . 

cause of restlessness, 174. 

creates craving for alcohol, 
174, 178. 

effect of, on digestion, 79. 
eyes, 158, 174. 
lungs, 111. 

nervous system, 151, 177. 
the heart, 174. 
vegetable life, 172. 

first effects of using, 172. 

general effects of, 174. 

history of, 170. 

laws against, 171, 173, 179. 

lowers the moral tone, 178. 

nicotine in, 171. 

" Tobacco heart," 103. 

verdict against use of, 172. 
Tongue, 159. 

as an organ of touch, 160. 

flavors detected by, 160. 



Tonsils, 104. 

Touch, in the tongue, 160. 

organs of, 162. 
Trachea, 105. 

Ulna, 12. 

Vaccination, 127. 
Valves in the heart, 92. 

in the veins, 98. 
Vegetables, 51. 

cooking of, 58. 

time of digestion of, 70. 
Veins, 97. 

Ventilation, 109, 112. 
Ventricles of the heart, 92. 
Villi, 82. 
Voice, 67. 
Voluntary activities affected by 

alcohol, 147. 
Vomiting, how produced, 189. 

Wateb, amount needed daily, 
48. 

impure, 49. 

purifying, 50. 

quantity of, in the body, 48. 

when injurious, 50, 71. 
Well, proper location for a, 49. 
Wild yeast plant, 23. 
Wine, 24. 

home made, 25. 
Woolen cloth, 132. 

Yeast. 

in beer-making, 26. 

in bread-making, 30. 
Yeast plants, 24. 



208 



